21st Century Adult Cancer Sourcebook: Urethral Cancer (Cancer of the Urethra) - Clinical Data for Patients, Families, and Physicians
Edition 1.0 - October 2011
National Cancer Institute
Smashwords Edition
Copyright 2011 Progressive Management
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PART ONE
Chapter 1A: Urethral Cancer Patient Information
Chapter 2A: Urethral Cancer Health Professional Information
Chapter 3A: Urethral Cancer Clinical Trials
PART TWO
Chapter 1B: Levels of Evidence for Adult and Pediatric Cancer Treatment Studies (NCI)
Chapter 2B: Glossary of Clinical Trial Terms
Chapter 3B: Clinical Trials Background Information
Chapter 4B: Cancer Clinical Trials -The Basic Workbook
Chapter 5B: Cancer Clinical Trials - The In-Depth Program
Chapter 6B: Clinical Trials at NIH
Chapter 7B: How To Find A Cancer Treatment Trial: A Ten Step Guide
Chapter 8B: Taking Part in Cancer Treatment Research Studies
Chapter 9B: Cancer Clinical Trials
Chapter 10B: Access to Investigational Drugs
Chapter 12B: Taking Time: Support for People with Cancer
Chapter 13B: Facing Forward - Life After Cancer Treatment
Chapter 14B: Chemotherapy and You
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PART ONE
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Chapter 1A: Urethral Cancer Patient Information
Patient Version
Last Modified: 07/01/2011
General Information About Urethral Cancer
Key Points for This Section
* Urethral cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the urethra.
* Age and a history of bladder cancer can affect the risk of developing urethral cancer.
* Possible signs of urethral cancer include bleeding or trouble with urination.
* Tests that examine the urethra and bladder are used to detect (find) and diagnose urethral cancer.
* Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
Urethral cancer is a disease in which malignant (cancer) cells form in the tissues of the urethra.
The urethra is the tube that carries urine from the bladder to outside the body. In women, the urethra is about 1½ inches long and is just above the vagina. In men, the urethra is about 8 inches long, and goes through the prostate gland and the penis to the outside of the body. In men, the urethra also carries semen.
Anatomy of the male urinary system and female urinary system showing the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. Urine is made in the renal tubules and collects in the renal pelvis of each kidney. The urine flows from the kidneys through the ureters to the bladder. The urine is stored in the bladder until it leaves the body through the urethra.
Urethral cancer is a rare cancer that occurs more often in women than in men. There are different types of urethral cancer that begin in cells that line the urethra. These cancers are named for the types of cells that become malignant (cancerous):
* Squamous cell carcinoma is the most common type of urethral cancer. It forms in cells in the part of the urethra near the bladder in women, and in the lining of the urethra in the penis in men.
* Transitional cell carcinoma forms in the area near the urethral opening in women, and in the part of the urethra that goes through the prostate gland in men.
* Adenocarcinoma forms in glands near the urethra in both men and women.
Urethral cancer can metastasize (spread) quickly to tissues around the urethra and is often found in nearby lymph nodes by the time it is diagnosed.
Age and a history of bladder cancer can affect the risk of developing urethral cancer.
Risk factors include the following:
* Having a history of bladder cancer.
* Having conditions that cause chronic inflammation in the urethra, including:
* Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).
* Frequent urinary tract infections (UTIs).
* Being 60 or older.
* Being a white female.
Possible signs of urethral cancer include bleeding or trouble with urination.
These and other symptoms may be caused by urethral cancer. Other conditions may cause the same symptoms. Sometimes early cancer of the urethra does not cause any symptoms at all. A doctor should be consulted if any of the following problems occur:
* Bleeding from the urethra or blood in the urine.
* Weak or interrupted ("stop-and-go") flow of urine.
* Frequent urination.
* A lump or thickness in the perineum or penis.
* Discharge from the urethra.
* Enlarged lymph nodes in the groin area.
Tests that examine the urethra and bladder are used to detect (find) and diagnose urethral cancer.
The following tests and procedures may be used:
* Physical exam and history: An exam of the body to check general signs of health, including checking for signs of disease, such as lumps or anything else that seems unusual. A history of the patient's health habits and past illnesses and treatments will also be taken.
* Laboratory tests: Medical procedures that test samples of tissue, blood, urine, or other substances in the body. These tests help to diagnose disease, plan and check treatment, or monitor the disease over time.
* Urine cytology: Examination of urine under a microscope to check for abnormal cells.
* Urinalysis: A test to check the color of urine and its contents, such as sugar, protein, blood, and white blood cells. If white blood cells (a sign of infection) are found, a urine culture is usually done to find out what type of infection it is.
* Digital rectal exam: An exam of the rectum. The doctor or nurse inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the lower part of the rectum to feel for lumps or anything else that seems unusual. This procedure may be done while the patient is under anesthesia.
* Pelvic exam: An exam of the vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and rectum. The doctor or nurse inserts one or two lubricated, gloved fingers of one hand into the vagina and places the other hand over the lower abdomen to feel the size, shape, and position of the uterus and ovaries. A speculum is also inserted into the vagina and the doctor or nurse looks at the vagina and cervix for signs of disease. This may be done while the patient is under anesthesia.
* Pelvic exam. A doctor or nurse inserts one or two lubricated, gloved fingers of one hand into the vagina and presses on the lower abdomen with the other hand. This is done to feel the size, shape, and position of the uterus and ovaries. The vagina, cervix, fallopian tubes, and rectum are also checked.
* Cystoscopy: A procedure to look inside the urethra and bladder to check for abnormal areas. A cystoscope (a thin, lighted tube) is inserted through the urethra into the bladder. Tissue samples may be taken for biopsy.
* Biopsy: The removal of cells or tissues from the urethra, bladder, and, sometimes, the prostate gland, so they can be viewed under a microscope by a pathologist to check for signs of cancer.
Certain factors affect prognosis (chance of recovery) and treatment options.
The prognosis (chance of recovery) depends on the following:
* The stage and size of the cancer (whether it is in only one area or has spread to other areas).
* Where in the urethra the cancer first formed.
* The patient's general health.
* Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred (come back).
Treatment options depend on the following:
* The stage of the cancer and where it is in the urethra.
* The patient's sex and general health.
* Whether the cancer has just been diagnosed or has recurred.
Glossary Terms
abdomen (AB-doh-men)
* The area of the body that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs.
abnormal (ab-NOR-mul)
* Not normal. An abnormal lesion or growth may be cancer, premalignant (likely to become cancer), or benign (not cancer).
adenocarcinoma (A-den-oh-KAR-sih-NOH-muh)
* Cancer that begins in cells that line certain internal organs and that have gland-like (secretory) properties.
anesthesia (A-nes-THEE-zhuh)
* A loss of feeling or awareness caused by drugs or other substances. Anesthesia keeps patients from feeling pain during surgery or other procedures. Local anesthesia is a loss of feeling in one small area of the body. Regional anesthesia is a loss of feeling in a part of the body, such as an arm or leg. General anesthesia is a loss of feeling and a complete loss of awareness that feels like a very deep sleep.
biopsy (BY-op-see)
* The removal of cells or tissues for examination by a pathologist. The pathologist may study the tissue under a microscope or perform other tests on the cells or tissue. There are many different types of biopsy procedures. The most common types include: (1) incisional biopsy, in which only a sample of tissue is removed; (2) excisional biopsy, in which an entire lump or suspicious area is removed; and (3) needle biopsy, in which a sample of tissue or fluid is removed with a needle. When a wide needle is used, the procedure is called a core biopsy. When a thin needle is used, the procedure is called a fine-needle aspiration biopsy.
bladder (BLA-der)
* The organ that stores urine.
bladder cancer (BLA-der KAN-ser)
* Cancer that forms in tissues of the bladder (the organ that stores urine). Most bladder cancers are transitional cell carcinomas (cancer that begins in cells that normally make up the inner lining of the bladder). Other types include squamous cell carcinoma (cancer that begins in thin, flat cells) and adenocarcinoma (cancer that begins in cells that make and release mucus and other fluids). The cells that form squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma develop in the inner lining of the bladder as a result of chronic irritation and inflammation.
blood (blud)
* A tissue with red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and other substances suspended in fluid called plasma. Blood takes oxygen and nutrients to the tissues, and carries away wastes.
cancer (KAN-ser)
* A term for diseases in which abnormal cells divide without control and can invade nearby tissues. Cancer cells can also spread to other parts of the body through the blood and lymph systems. There are several main types of cancer. Carcinoma is a cancer that begins in the skin or in tissues that line or cover internal organs. Sarcoma is a cancer that begins in bone, cartilage, fat, muscle, blood vessels, or other connective or supportive tissue. Leukemia is a cancer that starts in blood-forming tissue such as the bone marrow, and causes large numbers of abnormal blood cells to be produced and enter the blood. Lymphoma and multiple myeloma are cancers that begin in the cells of the immune system. Central nervous system cancers are cancers that begin in the tissues of the brain and spinal cord. Also called malignancy.
cell (sel)
* The individual unit that makes up the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells.
cervix (SER-vix)
* The lower, narrow end of the uterus that forms a canal between the uterus and vagina.
chronic (KRAH-nik)
* A disease or condition that persists or progresses over a long period of time.
cystoscope (SIS-toh-SKOPE)
* A thin, tube-like instrument used to look inside the bladder and urethra. A cystoscope has a light and a lens for viewing and may have a tool to remove tissue.
cystoscopy (sis-TOS-koh-pee)
* Examination of the bladder and urethra using a cystoscope, inserted into the urethra. A cystoscope is a thin, tube-like instrument with a light and a lens for viewing. It may also have a tool to remove tissue to be checked under a microscope for signs of disease.
diagnosis (DY-ug-NOH-sis)
* The process of identifying a disease, such as cancer, from its signs and symptoms.
digital rectal examination (DIH-jih-tul REK-tul eg-ZA-mih-NAY-shun)
* An examination in which a doctor inserts a lubricated, gloved finger into the rectum to feel for abnormalities. Also called DRE.
discharge (DIS-charj)
* In medicine, a fluid that comes out of the body. Discharge can be normal or a sign of disease. Discharge also means release of a patient from care.
fallopian tube (fuh-LOH-pee-in...)
* A slender tube through which eggs pass from an ovary to the uterus. In the female reproductive tract, there is one ovary and one fallopian tube on each side of the uterus.
gland
* An organ that makes one or more substances, such as hormones, digestive juices, sweat, tears, saliva, or milk. Endocrine glands release the substances directly into the bloodstream. Exocrine glands release the substances into a duct or opening to the inside or outside of the body.
groin (groyn)
* The area where the thigh meets the abdomen.
infection (in-FEK-shun)
* Invasion and multiplication of germs in the body. Infections can occur in any part of the body and can spread throughout the body. The germs may be bacteria, viruses, yeast, or fungi. They can cause a fever and other problems, depending on where the infection occurs. When the body’s natural defense system is strong, it can often fight the germs and prevent infection. Some cancer treatments can weaken the natural defense system.
inflammation (IN-fluh-MAY-shun)
* Redness, swelling, pain, and/or a feeling of heat in an area of the body. This is a protective reaction to injury, disease, or irritation of the tissues.
laboratory test (LA-bruh-tor-ee...)
* A medical procedure that involves testing a sample of blood, urine, or other substance from the body. Tests can help determine a diagnosis, plan treatment, check to see if treatment is working, or monitor the disease over time.
lymph node (limf node)
* A rounded mass of lymphatic tissue that is surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. Lymph nodes filter lymph (lymphatic fluid), and they store lymphocytes (white blood cells). They are located along lymphatic vessels. Also called lymph gland.
malignant (muh-LIG-nunt)
* Cancerous. Malignant cells can invade and destroy nearby tissue and spread to other parts of the body.
metastasize (meh-TAS-tuh-size)
* To spread from one part of the body to another. When cancer cells metastasize and form secondary tumors, the cells in the metastatic tumor are like those in the original (primary) tumor.
monitor (MAH-nih-ter)
* In medicine, to regularly watch and check a person or condition to see if there is any change. Also refers to a device that records and/or displays patient data, such as for an electrocardiogram (EKG).
nurse (nurs)
* A health professional trained to care for people who are ill or disabled.
ovary (OH-vuh-ree)
* One of a pair of female reproductive glands in which the ova, or eggs, are formed. The ovaries are located in the pelvis, one on each side of the uterus.
pathologist (puh-THAH-loh-jist)
* A doctor who identifies diseases by studying cells and tissues under a microscope.
pelvic examination (PEL-vik eg-ZA-mih-NAY-shun)
* A physical examination in which the health care professional will feel for lumps or changes in the shape of the vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries, and rectum. The health care professional will also use a speculum to open the vagina to look at the cervix and take samples for a Pap test. Also called internal examination.
penis (PEE-nis)
* An external male reproductive organ. It contains a tube called the urethra, which carries semen and urine to the outside of the body.
perineum (PAYR-ih-NEE-um)
* The area of the body between the anus and the vulva in females, and between the anus and the scrotum in males.
physical examination (FIH-zih-kul eg-ZA-mih-NAY-shun)
* An exam of the body to check for general signs of disease.
prognosis (prog-NO-sis)
* The likely outcome or course of a disease; the chance of recovery or recurrence.
prostate (PROS-tayt)
* A gland in the male reproductive system. The prostate surrounds the part of the urethra (the tube that empties the bladder) just below the bladder, and produces a fluid that forms part of the semen.
protein (PROH-teen)
* A molecule made up of amino acids that are needed for the body to function properly. Proteins are the basis of body structures such as skin and hair and of substances such as enzymes, cytokines, and antibodies.
recover (ree-KUH-ver)
* To become well and healthy again.
rectum (REK-tum)
* The last several inches of the large intestine closest to the anus.
recur
* To come back or to return.
risk factor (... FAK-ter)
* Something that increases the chance of developing a disease. Some examples of risk factors for cancer are age, a family history of certain cancers, use of tobacco products, being exposed to radiation or certain chemicals, infection with certain viruses or bacteria, and certain genetic changes.
semen (SEE-men)
* The fluid that is released through the penis during orgasm. Semen is made up of sperm from the testicles and fluid from the prostate and other sex glands.
speculum (SPEK-yoo-lum)
* An instrument used to widen an opening of the body to make it easier to look inside.
squamous cell carcinoma (SKWAY-mus sel KAR-sih-NOH-muh)
* Cancer that begins in squamous cells, which are thin, flat cells that look like fish scales. Squamous cells are found in the tissue that forms the surface of the skin, the lining of the hollow organs of the body, and the passages of the respiratory and digestive tracts. Also called epidermoid carcinoma.
stage
* The extent of a cancer in the body. Staging is usually based on the size of the tumor, whether lymph nodes contain cancer, and whether the cancer has spread from the original site to other parts of the body.
symptom (SIMP-tum)
* An indication that a person has a condition or disease. Some examples of symptoms are headache, fever, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, and pain.
tissue (TIH-shoo)
* A group or layer of cells that work together to perform a specific function.
transitional cell cancer (tran-ZIH-shuh-nul sel KAN-ser)
* Cancer that forms in transitional cells in the lining of the bladder, ureter, or renal pelvis (the part of the kidney that collects, holds, and drains urine). Transitional cells are cells that can change shape and stretch without breaking apart.
urethra (yoo-REE-thruh)
* The tube through which urine leaves the body. It empties urine from the bladder.
urethral cancer (yoo-REE-thrul KAN-ser)
* A rare cancer that forms in tissues of the urethra (the tube through which urine empties the bladder and leaves the body). Types of urethral cancer include transitional cell carcinoma (cancer that begins in cells that can change shape and stretch without breaking apart), squamous cell carcinoma (cancer that begins in flat cells lining the urethra), and adenocarcinoma (cancer that begins in cells that make and release mucus and other fluids).
urinalysis (YOOR-ih-NA-lih-sis)
* A test that determines the content of the urine.
urinary tract (YOOR-ih-NAYR-ee trakt)
* The organs of the body that produce and discharge urine. These include the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.
urine (YOOR-in)
* Fluid containing water and waste products. Urine is made by the kidneys, stored in the bladder, and leaves the body through the urethra.
urine cytology (YOOR-in sy-TAH-loh-jee)
* Tests performed on cells in urine to detect disease.
uterus (YOO-teh-rus)
* The small, hollow, pear-shaped organ in a woman's pelvis. This is the organ in which a fetus develops. Also called womb.
vagina (vuh-JY-nuh)
* The muscular canal that goes from the uterus to the outside of the body. During birth, the baby passes through the vagina. Also called birth canal.
white blood cell (hwite blud sel)
* A type of immune cell. Most white blood cells are made in the bone marrow and are found in the blood and lymph tissue. White blood cells help the body fight infections and other diseases. Granulocytes, monocytes, and lymphocytes are white blood cells. Also called leukocyte and WBC.
Table of Links
1 http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/pdq/treatment/urethral/Patient/Table1
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Stages of Urethral Cancer
Key Points for This Section
* After urethral cancer has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the urethra or to other parts of the body.
* There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.
* Urethral cancer is staged according to which part of the urethra is affected. Treatment is also based on this grouping.
* Anterior urethral cancer
* Posterior urethral cancer
* The following stages are also used to describe urethral cancer:
* Stage 0 (Carcinoma in Situ)
* Stage A
* Stage B
* Stage C
* Stage D
* Urethral cancer may be associated with invasive bladder cancer.
After urethral cancer has been diagnosed, tests are done to find out if cancer cells have spread within the urethra or to other parts of the body.
The process used to find out if cancer has spread within the urethra or to other parts of the body is called staging. The information gathered from the staging process determines the stage of the disease. It is important to know the stage in order to plan treatment. The following procedures may be used in the staging process:
* Chest x-ray: An x-ray of the organs and bones inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of energy beam that can go through the body and onto film, making a picture of areas inside the body.
* CT scan (CAT scan) of the pelvis and abdomen: A procedure that makes a series of detailed pictures of the pelvis and abdomen, taken from different angles. The pictures are made by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. A dye may be injected into a vein or swallowed to help the organs or tissues show up more clearly. This procedure is also called computed tomography, computerized tomography, or computerized axial tomography.
* MRI (magnetic resonance imaging): A procedure that uses a magnet, radio waves, and a computer to make a series of detailed pictures of the urethra, nearby lymph nodes, and other soft tissue and bones in the pelvis. A substance called gadolinium is injected into the patient through a vein. The gadolinium collects around the cancer cells so they show up brighter in the picture. This procedure is also called nuclear magnetic resonance imaging (NMRI).
* Blood chemistry studies: A procedure in which a blood sample is checked to measure the amounts of certain substances released into the blood by organs and tissues in the body. An unusual (higher or lower than normal) amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that produces it.
* Complete blood count (CBC): A procedure in which a sample of blood is drawn and checked for the following:
* The number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets.
* The amount of hemoglobin (the protein that carries oxygen) in the red blood cells.
* The portion of the blood sample made up of red blood cells.
There are three ways that cancer spreads in the body.
The three ways that cancer spreads in the body are:
* Through tissue. Cancer invades the surrounding normal tissue.
* Through the lymph system. Cancer invades the lymph system and travels through the lymph vessels to other places in the body.
* Through the blood. Cancer invades the veins and capillaries and travels through the blood to other places in the body.
When cancer cells break away from the primary (original) tumor and travel through the lymph or blood to other places in the body, another (secondary) tumor may form. This process is called metastasis. The secondary (metastatic) tumor is the same type of cancer as the primary tumor. For example, if breast cancer spreads to the bones, the cancer cells in the bones are actually breast cancer cells. The disease is metastatic breast cancer, not bone cancer.
Urethral cancer is staged according to which part of the urethra is affected. Treatment is also based on this grouping.
Urethral cancer is staged and treated based on the part of the urethra that is affected and how deeply the tumor has spread into tissue around the urethra. Urethral cancer can be described as anterior or posterior.
Anterior urethral cancer
In anterior urethral cancer, the tumors are not deep and they affect the part of the urethra that is closest to the outside of the body.
Posterior urethral cancer
In posterior urethral cancer, the tumors are deep and affect the part of the urethra closest to the bladder. In women, the entire urethra may be affected. In men, the prostate gland may be affected.
The following stages are also used to describe urethral cancer:
Stage 0 (Carcinoma in Situ)
In stage 0, abnormal cells are found in the inside lining of the urethra. These abnormal cells may become cancer and spread into nearby normal tissue. Stage 0 is also called carcinoma in situ.
Stage A
In stage A, cancer has formed and spread into the layer of tissue beneath the lining of the urethra.
Stage B
In stage B, cancer is found in the muscle around the urethra. In men, the penile tissue surrounding the urethra may be affected.
Stage C
In stage C, cancer has spread beyond the tissue surrounding the urethra, and:
* in women, may be found in the vagina, vaginal lips, or nearby muscle;
* in men, may be found in the penis or in nearby muscle.
Stage D
Stage D is divided into stage D1 and stage D2, based on where the cancer has spread.
* In stage D1, cancer has spread to nearby lymph nodes in the pelvis and groin.
* In stage D2, cancer has spread to distant lymph nodes or to other organs in the body, such as the lungs, liver, and bone.
Urethral cancer may be associated with invasive bladder cancer.
A small number of patients who have bladder cancer are also diagnosed with cancer of the urethra, or will develop it in the future.
Glossary Terms
abdomen (AB-doh-men)
* The area of the body that contains the pancreas, stomach, intestines, liver, gallbladder, and other organs.
abnormal (ab-NOR-mul)
* Not normal. An abnormal lesion or growth may be cancer, premalignant (likely to become cancer), or benign (not cancer).
anterior (an-TEER-ee-er)
* In human anatomy, has to do with the front of a structure, or a structure found toward the front of the body.
anterior urethral cancer (an-TEER-ee-er yoo-REE-thrul KAN-ser)
* A disease in which malignant (cancer) cells are found in the part of the urethra (the tube through which urine leaves the body) that is closest to the outside of the body.
bladder (BLA-der)
* The organ that stores urine.
bladder cancer (BLA-der KAN-ser)
* Cancer that forms in tissues of the bladder (the organ that stores urine). Most bladder cancers are transitional cell carcinomas (cancer that begins in cells that normally make up the inner lining of the bladder). Other types include squamous cell carcinoma (cancer that begins in thin, flat cells) and adenocarcinoma (cancer that begins in cells that make and release mucus and other fluids). The cells that form squamous cell carcinoma and adenocarcinoma develop in the inner lining of the bladder as a result of chronic irritation and inflammation.
blood (blud)
* A tissue with red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and other substances suspended in fluid called plasma. Blood takes oxygen and nutrients to the tissues, and carries away wastes.
blood chemistry study (blud KEH-mih-stree STUH-dee)
* A procedure in which a sample of blood is examined to measure the amounts of certain substances made in the body. An abnormal amount of a substance can be a sign of disease in the organ or tissue that produces it.
bone cancer (bone KAN-ser)
* Primary bone cancer is cancer that forms in cells of the bone. Some types of primary bone cancer are osteosarcoma, Ewing sarcoma, malignant fibrous histiocytoma, and chondrosarcoma. Secondary bone cancer is cancer that spreads to the bone from another part of the body (such as the prostate, breast, or lung).
breast cancer (brest KAN-ser)
* Cancer that forms in tissues of the breast, usually the ducts (tubes that carry milk to the nipple) and lobules (glands that make milk). It occurs in both men and women, although male breast cancer is rare.
capillary (KA-pih-layr-ee)
* The smallest type of blood vessel. A capillary connects an arteriole (small artery) to a venule (small vein) to form a network of blood vessels in almost all parts of the body. The wall of a capillary is thin and leaky, and capillaries are involved in the exchange of fluids and gases between tissues and the blood.
carcinoma in situ (KAR-sih-NOH-muh in SY-too)
* A group of abnormal cells that remain in the place where they first formed. They have not spread. These abnormal cells may become cancer and spread into nearby normal tissue. Also called stage 0 disease.
cell (sel)
* The individual unit that makes up the tissues of the body. All living things are made up of one or more cells.
chest x-ray (chest EX-ray)
* An x-ray of the structures inside the chest. An x-ray is a type of high-energy radiation that can go through the body and onto film, making pictures of areas inside the chest, which can be used to diagnose disease.
complete blood count (kum-PLEET blud kownt)
* A test to check the number of red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in a sample of blood. Also called blood cell count and CBC.
contrast material (KON-trast muh-TEER-ee-ul)
* A dye or other substance that helps show abnormal areas inside the body. It is given by injection into a vein, by enema, or by mouth. Contrast material may be used with x-rays, CT scans, MRI, or other imaging tests.
CT scan (… skan)
* A series of detailed pictures of areas inside the body taken from different angles. The pictures are created by a computer linked to an x-ray machine. Also called CAT scan, computed tomography scan, computerized axial tomography scan, and computerized tomography.
diagnosis (DY-ug-NOH-sis)
* The process of identifying a disease, such as cancer, from its signs and symptoms.
gland
* An organ that makes one or more substances, such as hormones, digestive juices, sweat, tears, saliva, or milk. Endocrine glands release the substances directly into the bloodstream. Exocrine glands release the substances into a duct or opening to the inside or outside of the body.
groin (groyn)
* The area where the thigh meets the abdomen.
hemoglobin (HEE-moh-GLOH-bin)
* The substance inside red blood cells that binds to oxygen in the lungs and carries it to the tissues.
injection (in-JEK-shun)
* Use of a syringe and needle to push fluids or drugs into the body; often called a "shot."
invasive cancer (in-VAY-siv KAN-ser)
* Cancer that has spread beyond the layer of tissue in which it developed and is growing into surrounding, healthy tissues. Also called infiltrating cancer.
liver (LIH-ver)
* A large organ located in the upper abdomen. The liver cleanses the blood and aids in digestion by secreting bile.
lung
* One of a pair of organs in the chest that supplies the body with oxygen, and removes carbon dioxide from the body.
lymph (limf)
* The clear fluid that travels through the lymphatic system and carries cells that help fight infections and other diseases. Also called lymphatic fluid.
lymph node (limf node)
* A rounded mass of lymphatic tissue that is surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue. Lymph nodes filter lymph (lymphatic fluid), and they store lymphocytes (white blood cells). They are located along lymphatic vessels. Also called lymph gland.
lymph vessel (limf ...)
* A thin tube that carries lymph (lymphatic fluid) and white blood cells through the lymphatic system. Also called lymphatic vessel.
lymphatic system (lim-FA-tik SIS-tem)
* The tissues and organs that produce, store, and carry white blood cells that fight infections and other diseases. This system includes the bone marrow, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels (a network of thin tubes that carry lymph and white blood cells). Lymphatic vessels branch, like blood vessels, into all the tissues of the body.
metastasis (meh-TAS-tuh-sis)
* The spread of cancer from one part of the body to another. A tumor formed by cells that have spread is called a “metastatic tumor” or a “metastasis.” The metastatic tumor contains cells that are like those in the original (primary) tumor. The plural form of metastasis is metastases (meh-TAS-tuh-SEEZ).
MRI
* A procedure in which radio waves and a powerful magnet linked to a computer are used to create detailed pictures of areas inside the body. These pictures can show the difference between normal and diseased tissue. MRI makes better images of organs and soft tissue than other scanning techniques, such as computed tomography (CT) or x-ray. MRI is especially useful for imaging the brain, the spine, the soft tissue of joints, and the inside of bones. Also called magnetic resonance imaging, NMRI, and nuclear magnetic resonance imaging.
organ (OR-gun)
* A part of the body that performs a specific function. For example, the heart is an organ.
pelvis (PEL-vus)
* The lower part of the abdomen, located between the hip bones.
penis (PEE-nis)
* An external male reproductive organ. It contains a tube called the urethra, which carries semen and urine to the outside of the body.
platelet (PLATE-let)
* A tiny piece of a cell found in the blood that breaks off from a large cell found in the bone marrow. Platelets help wounds heal and prevent bleeding by forming blood clots. Also called thrombocyte.
posterior (pos-TEER-ee-er)
* In human anatomy, has to do with the back of a structure, or a structure found toward the back of the body.
posterior urethral cancer (pos-TEER-ee-er yoo-REE-thrul KAN-ser)
* A disease in which malignant (cancer) cells are found in the part of the urethra (the tube through which urine leaves the body) that connects to the bladder (the organ that stores urine).
primary tumor (PRY-mayr-ee TOO-mer)
* The original tumor.
prostate (PROS-tayt)
* A gland in the male reproductive system. The prostate surrounds the part of the urethra (the tube that empties the bladder) just below the bladder, and produces a fluid that forms part of the semen.
protein (PROH-teen)
* A molecule made up of amino acids that are needed for the body to function properly. Proteins are the basis of body structures such as skin and hair and of substances such as enzymes, cytokines, and antibodies.
red blood cell (red blud sel)
* A cell that carries oxygen to all parts of the body. Also called erythrocyte and RBC.
soft tissue (... TIH-shoo)
* Refers to muscle, fat, fibrous tissue, blood vessels, or other supporting tissue of the body.
stage
* The extent of a cancer in the body. Staging is usually based on the size of the tumor, whether lymph nodes contain cancer, and whether the cancer has spread from the original site to other parts of the body.
staging (STAY-jing)
* Performing exams and tests to learn the extent of the cancer within the body, especially whether the disease has spread from the original site to other parts of the body. It is important to know the stage of the disease in order to plan the best treatment.
tissue (TIH-shoo)
* A group or layer of cells that work together to perform a specific function.
tumor (TOO-mer)
* An abnormal mass of tissue that results when cells divide more than they should or do not die when they should. Tumors may be benign (not cancer), or malignant (cancer). Also called neoplasm.
urethra (yoo-REE-thruh)