From Prussia to Russia to North America: 300 Years
Stanley M Harder
Published by Stanley M Harder at Smashwords
Copyright © 1998, 2010 by Stanley M Harder
Smashwords Edition, License notes
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2nd revision April, 1998
3rd revision July, 2010
I credit my parents who taught me to respect, value, and love the extended family that I had the privilege to grow up knowing. I only wish I had the means to record more of their story. Many of them are no longer here to tell how God heard their prayers, how He answered in time of need, and how they lived. As you read the story of the Mennonites, in particular the groups that migrated from Prussia in the 18th century into the Ukraine (New Russia) and a century later migrated again to Canada and the U.S., remember why they were willing to give up all their earthly possessions to make such a drastic change.
I have credited my sources using the MLA style of notation. If you wish to learn more about the MLA style you can visit the complete reference at http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/747/01/
I have included more than 200 embedded links to Internet sources of additional information on key topics, for those interested in further research or reading. In some e-book formats the links will not be active, unfortunately. The links will only be accessible if your reader allows active links.
Stanley M Harder
July 2010
Table of Contents
The Church before the Reformation
The Roots of the Mennonite Movement
Anabaptist Teachings in the Netherlands
Earliest Records of the Family Surnames
Family in the Chortitza Colony
Family in the Molotschna Colony
The Migration to Canada and the US
The 20th Century – Baptism of Fire
Peter P Harder (1883-1962) & Margaretha Sawatzky (1884-1964)
Gerhard P Quiring (1874-1953) & Anna Siemens (1880-1948)
"But if serving the LORD seems undesirable to you, then choose for yourselves this day whom you will serve, whether the gods your forefathers served beyond the River, or the gods of the Amorites, in whose land you are living. But as for me and my household, we will serve the LORD." Josh 24:15
Spoken by the newly-appointed leader of the Israelite nation at a time when the nation was enjoying the euphoria of victory, this verse serves as a warning as well as an affirmation. Joshua wasn't beguiled by his popularity. He recognized that the future was being shaped by the priorities and attitudes of today. It is very likely that Joshua was aware of families, perhaps whole clans that still carried with them the idols of the past, in their heart as well as in their baggage.
In the context of our family history, families made these same choices generation after generation for hundreds of years. Entire villages were faced with tough choices at a community level. This is a story of real people, people who made mistakes, but also a people that time and again reaffirmed their choice to serve the Lord God as their conscience directed, in the face of imminent persecution as well as in times of prosperity.
The Mennonites maintained a cohesive culture despite great obstacles, impoverishment, and opposition. The Mennonite community continued welcoming outsiders that wished to join them in the practice of their faith while rejecting those that threatened their devotion to the one triune God.
Why should we care about the actions of a long forgotten family in the 16th century? Why do I care what our ancestors did in a village located in an inhospitable province of the New Russia? Does any of our history matter to me or impact what I do with my life? Listen to what God Himself said to the Israelites at Mt. Sinai. "You shall not bow down to them or worship them; for I, the LORD your God, am a jealous God, punishing the children for the sin of the fathers to the third and fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing love to a thousand generations of those who love me and keep my commandments." (Exodus 20:5,6)
Clearly the lives and choices of the generations before me have a direct impact on my life, whether I'm aware of it or not. By the same token, my actions and choices will have a direct bearing on the generations that follow me. Our children, our grandchildren…well, you get the idea…will be either blessed or impaired by our life and actions. Knowing who our ancestors were and how they lived and what bearing that had on subsequent generations serves to confirm the certainty of God’s promises.
Who were these people and what were they like? To fully answer this question requires an understanding of European history. Understanding the language, the political powers that drove events, the philosophical climate in which they were immersed contribute to our understanding. So we must begin with a review of the geography, political boundaries, theological currents, theory of government and freedom, economics, and how those elements impacted the behavior of nations and rulers.
The Bible defined the Mennonites' understanding of freedom. Emphasis on individual accountability influenced their belief in hard work and integrity. They were known for their work ethic and ability to turn useless land into productive farms. The Prussian rulers invited the “Netherlanders” beginning in the late 1500’s because of their proven expertise in reclaiming swamp lands. The Russian monarchy pursued them aggressively in the late 1700’s, despite the resistance from the Prussian government, because of their well-known capability to turn undeveloped land into productive farms. The Canadian government openly courted them in the late 1800’s to help turn unused prairie into productive farmland.
At the same time, their adherence to Christ-centered living would eventually bring them into direct conflict with the political powers of the day. That shouldn’t be surprising. Christ predicted this would happen to his followers. Their refusal to bear arms to make war or pay taxes for the purpose of making war led to friction with the political authorities. And the willingness to abandon their possessions, if necessary to preserve their freedom to worship God as they saw fit, demonstrated undeniably where their real treasure resided, in a Kingdom not of this world.
Not all Mennonites were as firm in their convictions. Some chose their possessions over their principals. Some Mennonites were absorbed into the culture around them. More than half of the Russian colonists living in The Ukraine in the late 19th century stayed in Russia. How many did so for financial gain is impossible for us to determine. Certainly the choice to abandon all that was safe and secure for the promise of a new home across the ocean was not an easy one. Many of the people that stayed behind suffered severely in the years that followed.
As you read and discover more about the Mennonite history in the following pages I challenge you to consider what your response would be, if you had lived in the 1870’s in The Ukraine. What would you have chosen? At the time of their decision to emigrate or not, they didn't know how world events would turn out. They made their decisions based on an internal compass and a confidence in God’s Word.
But be very careful to keep the commandment and the law that Moses the servant of the LORD gave you: to love the LORD your God, to walk in all his ways, to obey his commands, to hold fast to him and to serve him with all your heart and all your soul." (Joshua 22:5 NIV)
The Church before the Reformation
"It is better to die well than to live ill." - John Hus
A number of reformers preceded the beginning of the Protestant Reformation which is commonly associated with Martin Luther posting his Ninety Five Theses, on October 31, 1517. Over a period of three centuries prior to that event, protests had been raised to the corruption evident in the Catholic Church. By the early 1500’s protest centered on three main areas of concern,
- The greed in the Church
- The scandal of incompetent and often immoral clergy
- The pride and power of the pope (C. Dyck)
As frustration with the Roman Catholic Church grew so did the public demonstration of discontent. The political power base of the Holy Roman Empire was cracking. The Roman Catholic Church which derived its power largely from the control it exercised in the political realm saw protest as an affront to its authority. In this climate of discontent dissidents were not welcome. The early Reformers gave their lives in the face of great peril. In so doing, they laid the foundation for the Reformation and the Anabaptist movement which influenced our forefathers.
Peter Waldo - A Love of the Scriptures
In the year 1176 A.D. Peter Waldo, a wealthy merchant of Lyon, France, asked a theologian for the best way to God. The theologian answered with Matthew 19:21: "If you wish to be complete, go and sell your possessions and give to the poor, and you shall have treasure in heaven; and come, follow Me." As a result Peter sold his property and dedicated himself to a life of study of the Scriptures. The proceeds from the sale of his belongings provided for his wife and children.
His followers came to be known as the Waldensians. They were known for their love of the scriptures and their desire to put into practice what they read and studied. For a time the followers of Waldo traveled all through Europe in teams of two preaching, witnessing, and suffering as the organized church misunderstood and attempted to repress their influence. This movement continued to produce fruit for some 700 years (C. Dyck).
John Wyclif - The State as a Means of Reform
John Wyclif has been referred to as the "Morningstar of the Reformation." For most of his life Wyclif was a professor at Oxford University. Only in the last 10 years of his life did he become active in the reformation movement. As the result of a meeting with representatives of the Pope in 1374 Wyclif came to the conclusion that reform was impossible within the organized church councils and clergy.
He returned to England convinced that the only way to achieve lasting reformation was to bring the written Word to the people. He trained people to memorize long passages of the Bible and then recite them as they traveled about the country. These early preachers were really traveling evangelists. Due to his political connections John Wyclif enjoyed substantial protection and died a natural death, despite his radical ideas. Reportedly his opponents had his bones dug up and burned at a later date, a treatment reserved for heretics (C. Dyck).
John Hus - Bible Study as a Means of Reform
While John Wyclif put special emphasis on the need of the state to be involved in bringing about reform in the official church, John Hus placed less emphasis there and more in the direct study of scripture by the people. Hus began as a professor at the University of Prague but his reformation ideas quickly cost him the support of the existing church hierarchy.
After he attacked the papacy, corruption amongst the clergy, and other issues, he lost the support even of King Wenceslas and was forced into hiding. Given a guarantee of safe conduct by the ever-conspiring Emperor Sigismund to defend his ideas before the Council of Constance, he presented himself in Constance, only to be locked up in prison. Pope John XXIII, purportedly a pirate prior to his ascension to the Papacy, pressed for Hus' condemnation. Emperor Sigismund is said to have protested the arrest and subsequent imprisonment but to no avail. The result was a war that the Emperor would come to regret.
Hus wrote from prison: "It is better to die well than to live ill. One should not flinch before the sentence of death. To finish the present life in grace is to go away from pain and misery. He who fears death loses the joy of life. Above all else, truth triumphs. He conquers who dies, because no adversity can hurt the one over whom iniquity holds no sway” (C. Dyck).
After one last chance to recant, he was taken outside the city and burned to ashes. The date was July 6, 1415. For the following 100 years war raged as his followers fought for religious and political freedom. What survived of the movement eventually was known as the Bohemian Brethren, subsequently known as the Moravians.
Martin Luther - Justification by Faith
Martin Luther served as professor of theology at the University of Wittenberg, Germany, from 1512 until his death in 1546. His early misgivings about his own salvation led to the decision to become a monk. As he said, he became a monk "against the wishes of my father, of my mother, of God, and of the devil" (C. Dyck). Eventually he accepted a position and began lecturing at the University. While lecturing on the book of Galatians and then Romans he finally found peace as he realized the full impact of Romans 1:17, "But the righteous man shall live by faith."
This truth was at the heart of his reformation zeal. When summoned by Rome to answer for his teachings, he remembered the fate of John Hus and refused to go. Subsequently he did defend his teaching before Emperor Charles V and ended up fleeing for safety. It was under the protection of Duke Frederick the Wise that he carried out most of his translation, teaching, writing, and other activities for which he is known. It was under Luther’s influence that the practice of singing in church began, with hymns he had written such as "A Mighty Fortress is Our God."
Luther rejected the Anabaptist movement which grew out of his Reformation, because they criticized him for not going far enough with the Reformation. He referred to the Anabaptist followers as impulsive and emotional. By the same token, the Anabaptists called his Reformation a "halfway Reformation."
Thomas Muntzer - Reform Through Physical Force
One of the pivotal events that caused Luther to reject the Anabaptist movement was the Peasant's Revolt also known as the Muntzer Revolt, in 1525. While Carlstadt, a contemporary of Luther's, was considered a friend of the Anabaptists, Thomas Muntzer went even further in differentiating himself from Luther's Reformation. Luther's suggestion that he become a pastor led Muntzer to take up that office. Subsequently, he found a ready hearing amongst the lower classes with his message of political freedom as well as religious freedom. While Luther chose to work within the political structure of the day and the Anabaptists preferred to ignore or coexist, Muntzer preached that political power should be used to establish religious freedom.
As Muntzer's following grew he organized them into an armed force. His emblem or banner was a red cross and an unsheathed sword. Armed uprisings took place in many parts of Europe as a result. His followers thought that they were helping to fulfill God's divine plan for society. A military showdown occurred on May 15, 1525, at Frankenhausen. Thousands of peasants were killed by the well-armed nobles. Muntzer himself was captured, tortured and executed several days later (C. Dyck).
In light of this military and political failure and the opposition from Luther's followers, the Anabaptists fell on hard times as they sought to sort out the critical issues and refine what their beliefs and place in society should be. The Swiss Reformation and Ulrich Zwingli contributed to the formation of the Anabaptists. The early Anabaptist role in spurring further reformation didn’t sit well with the Reformers, Luther and Zwingli among them, who felt they had properly understood God’s word.
The Roots of the Mennonite Movement
"Lord, I lift your name on high… You came from heaven to earth to show the way, from the earth to the cross, my debt to pay. From the cross to the grave, from the grave to the sky; Lord, I lift Your name on high."
The Reformation movement, started by Luther’s publication of the Ninety Five Theses, found fertile ground in Switzerland. The Reformers soon found themselves playing a role in the ruling political structure. This seemed like a welcome change after the fierce political opposition endured in most parts of Europe. Ulrich Zwingli, a contemporary of Martin Luther, eventually became the leader and spokesman for the recognized church in Zurich, the political center of Switzerland. It wasn’t long before it became apparent that the Reformers were the ones in need of reformation as they closed themselves to additional reforms.
Zwingli in Zurich - Reform By Compromise
Martin Luther had focused on the matter of "justification by faith" and gave little attention to other equally obvious issues in the official Church. Zwingli took this a step further in late 1523 by spelling out changes he felt should be made to the Catholic mass. Due to political pressures from other cantons, semi-autonomous political regions in the Swiss Confederacy, the Zurich city Council decided that eliminating the mass was going too far.
Zwingli countered by announcing that he would celebrate the Lord's Supper in the Protestant fashion, by including the people in the act of drinking from the Cup and partaking of the bread. At the heart of this seemingly insignificant act was the belief on the part of the traditional church that the Lord's Supper represented the actual body of Jesus, something the reformers fervently disagreed with.
After Zwingli's bold announcement, the council hardened in their opposition to this change and firmly refused to allow this to go forward. Zwingli conceded the debate to the council, fearing that to further inflame the debate and oppose the council would endanger his working relationship with them.
This act of compromise led to great dissatisfaction amongst his followers. They also "objected to the continued wearing of robes by the clergy, believing that this supported the idea that the mass was a sacrifice, and they … objected to the use of prescribed songs and prayers" (Dyck 41). This brings us to Conrad Grebel and Felix Mantz, members of the Zurich church.
Conrad Grebel - From Wealth to Persecuted Reformer
Conrad Grebel came from an upper-class Zurich family. He had studied at the universities of Vienna and Paris, with no apparent aim in life. Zwingli led him to a personal commitment to Christ. When Zwingli, however, insisted on the reforms going only as fast as the civil authorities were willing to allow it, Grebel and others decided it was time to part ways.
As a last attempt to reconcile their differences Grebel and Mantz proposed to Zwingli that they start a political party to take control of the Council. Zwingli objected on the grounds that the Council could be trusted to act responsibly and creating a second political party would split the city politically and eventually cause a rift in the organized church of the city. That would dishonor God.
During that troubled year of 1524 another issue rose to the top of the list of concerns the new "reformers" had. Both Luther and Zwingli had made it plain early in the Reformation that they did not agree with the implications of infant baptism. The Catholic Church said this practice would "purify the child from the stain of original sin, making salvation certain in case of early death and predisposing the infant toward a mature Christian life" (Dyck 43). What wasn't clear to them was what action would take the place of infant baptism. Records of the discourse held during this time seem to indicate it hadn't occurred to anyone to rebaptize believers as adults. But these Reformers within the Reformation were certain that infant baptism didn't meet Biblical standards.
Council of Zurich and Infant Baptism
On January 18, 1525, the Council of Zurich ruled that infants must be baptized. The consequence of disobeying the Council would be immediate expulsion from the city of Zurich. It went even further than that, with force being used to persecute religious minorities in the area.
On the 21st of the same month, Grebel and Mantz met with a priest by the name of George Blaurock for prayer and consultation. In a seemingly spontaneous act, one of the individuals present asked that the others baptize him, in accord with their understanding of scripture. Others present at that event also asked to be baptized. This unplanned event led to a period of persecution. According to Cornelius Dyck this marked the beginning of the Anabaptist movement, so named for their belief in re-baptizing adult believers (C. Dyck). Within the year the number of people adhering to this new movement reportedly ran into the thousands (Newman).
The reader may ask, "Why would anyone wish to risk being burned at the stake over a question of adult vs. infant baptism?" The “new” reformers objected to the state-imposed practice of calling the elements of the Lord's Supper the actual body and blood of Christ, something only the priests could partake of. And reformers objected to being forced to baptize their infants under the false pretense that this would impart or ensure salvation. This was heresy from their perspective.
The "members" of this new group were forced to leave Zurich. Some didn't leave soon enough and were burned at the stake. Many made it back to their places of origin in other parts of Europe and vigorously began to evangelize and spread the new ideas. Some moved to rural areas where there would be less enforcement of city-government regulations. In Zurich, prison, fines, and sometimes torture were applied to offenders. By March of 1526, life imprisonment sentences were being imposed.
First Protestant Martyr
The first Protestant martyr is considered to be Hippolytus Eberle, executed by Roman Catholic authorities just a few weeks after joining a fellowship at St. Gall, in the canton of Schwyz (Newman). The first death penalty at the hands of a Protestant government authority was the drowning of Felix Mantz in the Limmat River in Zurich on January 5, 1527, just two years after that initial meeting with Grebel and Blaurock (C. Dyck).
The reason given in most cases was either sedition or perjury. In the first case it was called sedition if they refused to obey the government injunction not to baptize. In the latter it was called perjury if they promised to forsake these practices and were found to have continued in them. This allowed the civil authorities to treat a religious offense as a civil one.
During the ensuing confusion and persecution, no formal structure or organization existed for followers of the new practices. Consequently a wide diversity of opinions surfaced as well as practices and beliefs that had little resemblance to the original issues.
On or before February 24, 1527, a representation of the respected leaders of the movement met in the village of Schleitheim, near the Swiss-German border. What started as a meeting of leaders in disagreement and confusion ended with agreement and a common confession. Out of that meeting came the seven articles subsequently known as the Schleitheim Confession of Faith, which served to provide coherence and direction to the Anabaptist fellowships and the movement in general. The seven articles, in brief, addressed the following points:
- Baptism
- The Ban
- Breaking of Bread
- Separation
- Pastors in the Church
- The Sword
- The Oath
Strassburg, City of Freedom
The city of Strassburg, located in the region of modern-day Alsace, France, became a center for political and religious refugees that couldn't find safe haven in other parts. Strassburg had a tradition of freedom, having revolted from the political tyranny of prince and bishop in the 13th and 14th centuries. It operated with a democratically elected government representing the two main social groups, the nobility and the commoners. Strassburg's tolerant attitude is evident in the saying of the day, "He who would be hanged anywhere is simply driven from Strassburg by flogging" (C. Dyck).
Matthew Zell came to serve as pastor in the cathedral of Strassburg in 1518, the same year Martin Luther's Ninety Five Theses were widely distributed. He was won over to the Reformation soon thereafter. When he was denied the pulpit by the church authorities, the powerful guilds of the city came to his rescue and built him a wooden platform from which to preach to crowds of up to 3,000.
In 1523 the city government issued a mandate authorizing evangelical preaching. In the resulting disagreement with the Roman Catholic Church, the city took over responsibility for nominating, installing, and paying the pastors of the seven churches in the city.
The Anabaptists found Strassburg a great location for gathering together to discuss ideas and theology with equal vigor. From here reform-minded preachers and evangelists spread throughout present-day Europe. A map depicting Central Europe around 1550 shows the Anabaptists were effectively preaching and teaching in most parts of the former Holy Roman Empire, in regions known today as Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Belgium, Poland (Danzig area), and the Netherlands (Schroeder and Huebert, Mennonite Historical Atlas).
God's Kingdom on Earth - Visible or Invisible
During the 15 years that followed the original baptismal event in Zurich, the reformers continued to struggle with the issue of how to practice their core beliefs and deal with the persistent persecution that surrounded them. Persecution was especially vigorous and deadly during the first 50 years of the Anabaptist movement causing many to question the wisdom of public preaching and teaching. On the one hand were the invisibilists who preferred to live their faith and not be vocal about it; on the other hand were those who believed that Christ taught his followers to make their profession public.
Some of the Anabaptists believed strongly in the visible representation of Christ's church. Therefore they openly practiced baptism and the Lord's Supper. Others believed that they could follow the Word of God and not verbalize or practice their beliefs openly. They were referred to as the "invisibilists." The end result was that by keeping their beliefs to themselves they could avoid persecution and live almost normal lives. Still others questioned the need for reformation. Under fear of persecution they gave up their reformation convictions, choosing instead to be assimilated by society at large (C. Dyck). These events and many more set the stage for the advent of the Mennonite movement.
Anabaptist Teachings in the Netherlands
"The people of the world will hate you because you belong to me, for they don't know God who sent me." - Jesus
Melchior Hoffman - Apostle to the Netherlands
Melchior Hoffman is credited with bringing the Anabaptist teachings to the Netherlands. He was born in Swabia, a region in southern Germany, in 1493. A tanner or furrier by trade, he started out as a self-taught Lutheran preacher active in Sweden. Having been driven out of Sweden and later the region east of the Baltic Sea, he visited northern Germany and then Denmark. During his time in Germany he spent time with Luther. His earliest known writings are from this visit of several months in Wittenberg. (Hoffman, Melchior) During his travels opposition mounted, forcing him to move on, eventually ending up in Strassburg. There he heard about the Anabaptist teachings.
In 1530 he took up residence in Emden, a city just across the border from the northeastern portion of the Netherlands. From there he trained and sent lay preachers into the Netherlands and eventually went there himself. Hoffman died in prison but his efforts began to pay off (C. Dyck).
The Netherlands was ripe for change. Subjugated under the heavy hand of the Spanish king, who also held the title of Holy Roman Emperor, the Dutch were ready for change and the idea of changing the authority structure sounded attractive. As many as thirty printings of different translations of the Bible had appeared between 1520 and 1530. All of this created a hunger for freedom and change. The disciples of Hoffman and others taught that the Kingdom of God was about to appear. The implication was that anything they could do to prepare the way would be pleasing to God, perhaps even hasten His arrival. This led some to believe that even physical violence designed to overthrow the civil authorities was acceptable.
The workers in the textile industries responded in large numbers. And in response to this new teaching came the persecution led by the ruling authorities and especially the monasteries that saw in this movement a direct attack on their power and license. The first martyrs in Flanders were Willem Mulaer, beheaded on July 15, 1535, and Arendt de Jagher and Jan van Gentbrugge, both beheaded four days later. As a result of the intense persecution that followed, the majority of the believers of this region fled to Friesland, in the northern part of the Netherlands.
Cultural Clash in Friesland (Netherlands)
The people of Flanders were referred to as Flemings, from which we have the term "Flemish Dutch." These believers, from the working class on the coast of present-day Belgium, mingled in with the Anabaptists of the Friesland area, resulting in a considerable cultural clash which led to problems in the Mennonite Church, beginning in 1566, that persisted for hundreds of years.
Subsequently two terms came to be associated with the different camps of the Mennonite followers: Flemish and Frisian. These two terms refer primarily to the two followings within the Mennonite church and have no bearing on the geographical origins of the people known by that term.
Munster Rebellion - Reform by Force
The more radical teaching found fertile ground in the city of Munster, Germany, near the border with the Netherlands. Jan Matthijs, a Dutch disciple of the followers of Hoffman, "now taught that the faithful were to prepare for the return of Christ beforehand by making a place for His kingdom by destroying the wicked. As a result, everyone in the city of Munster was soon forced to receive baptism and join the new community or leave the city. Military preparations were quickly made for the great battle which would usher in the kingdom" (Dyck 103).
The bishop of Munster wasn't humored by the takeover of his city and arranged for the support of the German princes who attacked the city. On June 24, 1535, the Munster Rebellion ended with the arrest and imprisonment of the perpetrators. The extreme measures used by the Anabaptists, at least in this instance, caused their opponents to feel emboldened to pursue those who were a perceived threat to social stability.
Beginning of Mennonite Pacifism
The Munster Rebellion became a watershed event, a turning point for the Anabaptist movement. The failure of the more violence-prone Anabaptists only confirmed to those who opposed violence that peaceful means were the only ones ordained by God. One of those so convinced was Obbe Philips, previously discipled by followers of Jan Matthijs, a disciple of Melchior Hoffman. Obbe Philips, in turn, taught and ordained others, with a strong emphasis on abstention from violence. One of those he ordained was Menno Simons (C. Dyck).
Menno Simons, born in Witmarsum, Netherlands, studied and was ordained to the priesthood by the bishop of Utrecht in 1524. Approximately a year after taking on the role of priest he began to have doubts about the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church. What most bothered him was the teaching of transubstantiation: that the elements of the Lord's Supper were transformed, in the hands of the priest, into the body and blood of Jesus Christ. Much like Martin Luther, he began to search the scriptures and came to the conclusion that the church was wrong.
Subsequently he heard that a disciple of Hoffman's had been beheaded in a nearby town for being rebaptized, as was the tradition of the Anabaptists. He again turned to the scripture and could find no foundation for the teaching of infant baptism as the church taught it. He even turned to the writings of Luther and other reformers and could not find the basis they purported to have found in scripture.
Menno Simons' Conversion
The turning point for Menno Simons came when supporters of the Munster rebellion took over a monastery near his town of Witmarsum, in the province of Friesland, Netherlands. The monastery was besieged, captured and most, if not all, of the perpetrators were either killed or executed. Among them is believed to have been Peter Simons, quite possibly a brother of Menno (Menno Simons).
Menno Simons agreed with many of the Anabaptist teachings but disagreed with their bent for violence. He saw that he could no longer be passive while so many were being misguided, even deceived by teachers who were misleading the people. In a public statement on January 30, 1536, he made a public commitment to the cause of Christ and then went into hiding (Dyck 105-116).
Henry Vedder, in his book entitled A Short History of the Baptists, has this to say of Menno Simons. "Menno was an apostle of the truth, preaching and founding churches across the whole of Northern Europe, from France to Russia. In spite of the severest edicts and the bloodiest persecutions, he continued faithful to his calling, and found willing hearers of the gospel wherever he went. He enforced a strict standard of morals, repressed all tendencies toward fanaticism, and gradually molded his followers into the mild, peaceful, and moral people that the Mennonites have ever since been" (Vedder 187).
Sadly, during this period it was the Lutherans and Calvinists (Reformed) that fought change and opposed the Anabaptist movement. They held to the idea that society could not function unless it had a single church organization working in harmony with the civil government. Departing from conventional wisdom, Menno Simons taught that the church is a voluntary gathering of believers. Church members were bound together solely on the basis of their loyalty to Christ and love for one another. The use of the sword or other means of the state to enforce the will of the church was contrary to the example and teaching of Christ (Dyck 106).
Martyrs in Every Country
During much of Menno Simons' later years he was a hunted criminal, subject to imprisonment and execution. In 1544 he wrote that he "could not find in all the countries a cabin or hut in which my poor wife and our little children could be put up in safety for a year or even half a year" (Menno's Life). In January, 1539, Tjaard Renicx of Kimswerd, Friesland, Netherlands, was executed for having given shelter to Simons. Only one of Simons' children outlived him during these harsh times. In the Holy Roman Empire anyone who was baptized a second time was put to death. Although Emperor Charles V had tolerated Luther because he needed the support of the German princes, he did no such thing in the Netherlands. As many as 2,500 believers were martyred in Belgium and the Netherlands between 1528 and 1574.
Not untypical of the spirit and kindness of the brethren of this new movement was the example shown by Dirk Willems. "He was pursued by a company of Anabaptist hunters when he escaped from prison in the midst of winter. He fled across the thin covering of ice on a river and seemed to have made good his escape when, looking back, he saw one of his pursuers break through the ice and cry for help. Dirk immediately turned back and managed to rescue him, but on orders of the burgomaster on the other side of the river, the man he saved arrested him on the spot. He was burned at the stake on May 16, 1569, paying for this deed of mercy with his life" (Dyck 113-114).
In An Introduction to Mennonite History, Dyck writes, "So powerful was the Anabaptist witness at the time of execution that they were increasingly carried on in secret or the martyrs were gagged. Since some of them managed to free their tongues, however, a clamp was henceforth placed over their tongue and the tip burned so that it would not slip back through the vise" (116).
Since the Mennonite spiritual heritage dates back to this period of history, it is appropriate that we come to grips with the uncompromising sacrifice that so many endured for their faith. An example, chosen from dozens of equally moving stories, is that of David van der Leyen and Levina Ghyselins. In the early 17th century Thieleman Jansz van Braght took it upon himself to research in the public archives and publish a book titled Martyrs Mirror. His research has been proven to be accurate and unbiased, to the extent that one can remain unbiased while considering the lives and actions of the people he documented.
An excerpt regarding the deaths of David van der Leyen and Levina Ghyselins in Gent (East Flanders, Belgium) in 1554, reads,
"Some Anabaptist families lost more than one member to the executioner's axe. One example is the van der Leyens of Gent, where a small church flourished in the late 1540's… David was burned in 1554. His sister Tanneken was drowned at Antwerp in 1555, his brother Lauwers beheaded at Antwerp in 1559. Another brother, Franchois, was caught and tried in 1558, disposition unknown; we can assume that he also was killed. The Anabaptist father of the four had an unknown end. Here was a family of courage who stood firm in torture and execution.
Levina Ghyselins was burned with David, but her arrest and trial were unrelated to his. She was the wife of an Anabaptist shoemaker, Willem, who had been executed some months earlier. Her execution was postponed because of her pregnancy. After she had delivered her baby the authorities killed her, orphaning six children.
Executioners frequently bungled their work and were derided in turn by spectators in the carnival atmosphere of the bloody theater. On one occasion an executioner required seven blows with a dull axe to sever the head of one Anabaptist. The executioner strangled, then burned David and Levina. After the coals had died down around David's supposedly lifeless corpse, spectators cried out that he still lived. Goaded by their jeers, the executioner plunged a large iron fork into David's breast" (Oyer and Kreider).
Looking for Safe-haven
During this period of persecution the Mennonites scattered in many directions (making it hard for subsequent generations of Mennonites to trace with accuracy their ethnic roots). One area of particular interest in Mennonite history is the Vistula Delta surrounding the modern-day city of Gdansk, Poland. Named for the Vistula River which proceeds northward through much of modern-day Poland, this area became home to generations of Mennonite families beginning as early as 1530. It was easily accessible for the Dutch merchants who already carried on trade with this city and it provided good farmland for the farmers well-versed in reclaiming wetlands in the Netherlands. Motivated by the intense persecution in the Netherlands, Menno Simons visited the area in 1549 and Dirk Philips, his fellow laborer, came to live in the area in 1561 (Dyck 124). Church centers were established to provide for teaching and worship.
By the end of the 1500's the political situation had changed and the persecution began to abate from its former intensity. The last recorded martyrdom in Holland occurred in 1574. While sporadic persecution continued in various parts, the Mennonite community in general began to enjoy the fruit of their own hard work in many areas of the continent. The Mennonites living in the Netherlands, excluded for so long from the political discourse and from teaching careers, now moved into areas of trade and merchant activity. This in turn led to social, cultural, and educational interests and influence.
A Period of Prosperity and Recognition
The 17th and 18th centuries saw a period of relative prosperity for the Mennonite community in general. It was during this period that the Dutch Mennonites made contact with the English Quakers. The Amish Mennonites, followers of Jacob Ammann, became a distinct entity at the beginning of the 18th century in the Alsace area of France/Germany. The book Martyrs Mirror and other writings were printed and reprinted for the purpose of challenging the church to stay firm in its original convictions and teaching.
Wealthy Mennonites in the Netherlands organized relief efforts to aid the fellow believers in Poland and Prussia. Others Mennonites in the Netherlands founded mutual aid societies to aid in such diverse efforts as helping the families of sailors lost at sea, funding for museums, and scientific research. While the church at large seemed to prosper and economic conditions improved in Germany and the Low Countries, the Mennonites in Prussia were beginning to make their mark also.
"Aim at heaven, and you will get earth thrown in; aim at earth, and you will get neither." - C.S. Lewis
Early Migrations to Polish Prussia
Determining the precise orgins of the earliest Mennonites is difficult, as already mentioned, due to the conflict, persecution, and general unstability in Europe during the 17th century. As the table in Appendix V indicates there were many migrations for differing reasons during this period of time involving both Mennonites and Germans in general. It is generally assumed the Mennonites came mostly from the Netherlands, Moravia and Switzerland. W.J. Rempel provides an intriguing glimpse into the complexity of this issue in his book, A Mennonite Family in Tsarist Russia and the Soviet Union: 1789-1923 (W. Rempel). The intense persecution the Anabaptists suffered, during the 1500's in particular, drove them to migrate to various parts of Europe in unpredictable patterns, in their search for safe-haven. Sixteenth century records of their migration to Prussia are scarce or non-existent.
Glen Penner, along with Adalbert Goertz to whom we owe an immense debt of gratitude for his persistent research of this period of history, notes, “There were no exclusively Mennonite villages in West Prussia, although there were periods in history when a particular West Prussian village was solely occupied by Mennonites. On the other hand there were many villages in West Prussia that seemed to not have had any Mennonite residents prior to the early 1800s. Much like the situation in Manitoba, the Mennonite population spread out over the years” (Penner). Glen Penner’s persistence has resulted in a remarkable recreation of the villages and their precise locations in his webpage, West Prussian Mennonite Villages. Glen has also compiled and published, with the help of Richard Thiessen, an informative listing of about 1900 names of probable Mennonite affiliation titled, West Prussian Land Leases and Village Lists Containing Mennonites: 1600 – 1770. A compendium of Prussia resources is maintained by the Manitoba Mennonite Historical Society.
The earliest migration to the Danzig area occurred circa 1535 (Dyck 124). As early as 1549 several congregations were established in this region. A large migration took place in 1562 upon the invitation of large estate owners who needed experienced people for draining and improving the swampland such as that in the vicinity of the Vistula River. They were promised liberal religious and economic rights (Friesen 9).
The Mennonite contribution to reclaiming the land along the Vistula and Nogat Rivers during the years that followed did not go unnoticed. The experience of these settlers from the Netherlands in draining swamp land and turning it into productive farm land was very useful. Useless lands were turned into profitable pastures and wheat farms. The cost to the first generation of settlers was very high. Estimates indicate as much as 80% of the early immigrants died from swamp fever. In exchange for their labors and sacrifice they enjoyed toleration to live their lives as they saw fit (C. Dyck).
Arrival of Moravians from Silesia
During this initial period of resettlement families from many parts of Europe arrived to assist in the reclamation. A contingent of approximately 200 Moravian Brethren, followers of the teachings of John Hus, arrived in Marienwerder in two wagon trains from Silesia, a region of southern Poland, in 1535. When they applied for permission to enter the area and settle on May 23, 1535, Duke Albrecht refused. The group split up in June, after being refused entry, with some going south to Culm on the Vistula River and the other group going on to Berdeyn-Schoenberg. Some must have gone on to Danzig while others went east to the Elbing area, just east of Marienwerder.
In 1604 a second wagon train of Moravian Brethren arrived in the Marienburg Werder region. The records of the Elbing Council show that in the fall of 1604 a group of Moravians applied for permission to settle there. They were turned down and ended up settling under the protection of Polish authorities in Wengeln by the Drausen Sea.
Anabaptists arrived in Silesia from many parts of Europe, seeking safe-haven. When the authorities of Silesia turned hostile, the followers of Gabriel Ascherham left, some settling in various parts of northern Poland along the Vistula River. Some sources suggest that his followers left due to his poor leadership skills (Ascherham, Gabriel). Jakob Hutter, known as the founder of the Hutterites, was loosely associated with the Moravians during the early 16th century until persecution set in and the Moravians were forced to flee. The continual influx of people to the Vistual River delta created an ethnic mixture that today is hard for the researcher to unravel.
The Thirty Years War
In 1618 the Thirty Years War began, the result of a flare-up in the 100 year old animosity between Protestants and Catholics in Germany. The Catholic King of Bohemia, Ferdinand II, refused to resolve the grievances of the Protestant majority in his jurisdiction. In the resulting furor the Protestants invaded his palace on May 23 and threw two of his ministers out of the window, literally. The dispute spread to all of Europe, eventually involving Spain, France, England, Germany, in short, the entire Continent.
It is estimated that the Holy Roman Empire lost from 15 to 20 percent of its population with the worst damage being done in Germany. Villages suffered more than the fortified cities. Uncertainty, fear, disruption, and brutality marked everyday life. A major impact of this war was the extensive destruction of entire regions of Europe. The war bankrupted most of the political powers involved.
The Peace of Westphalia was signed on October 24, 1648, in the city of Munster, Germany. The political outcome had long term effects. Switzerland and Holland became independent states. The Holy Roman Empire and the Hapsburg dynasty were gravely weakened and France emerged as the chief power on the Continent.
The Anabaptists and Mennonites, primarily pacifists, were caught in the middle of the warring parties. Migration of the persecuted religious groups was disrupted. Records were lost or destroyed as armies ranged over the landscape. The practical outcome for family history research is that many of the records were destroyed and people displaced, making research of family lines very difficult or impossible.
Privileges and Restrictions
In 1642 King Wladislaw IV of Poland issued an edict favoring the Mennonite settlements in his territory. The wording of this edict seems to indicate the Mennonites had won a degree of respect of both the government and their neighbors. The truth was that King Wladislaw was an astute politician, favoring first the Protestants and then the Catholics. His career was marked with continuous changes in loyalty, determined by his immediate needs for political, economic, and military strength.
Despite the good favor they enjoyed in the territory, Mennonites could not receive citizenship in the city of Danzig (Dyck 161). The guilds and merchants of the city feared the apparent prosperity of these immigrants and would not allow the city council to expand too generously on its good feelings. This duality reared its ugly head in Danzig during the Swedish-Polish War of 1655-1660, also known as the NorthernWar, and again in the Polish War of Succession of 1733-1735 when many of their homes were destroyed by the war and by those who resented them as an ethnic-religious group.
History of Two Prussias
The Mennonites lived in the area commonly referred to as West Prussia for a period of about 200 years. Their communities were often impacted by the military campaigns being waged in the region. A brief listing follows, as an attempt to describe the turmoil that ebbed and flowed around their villages and communities during the 18th century. This turmoil came to a head with the bankrupted government of Prussia looking increasingly to the wealthy Mennonite farmers in West Prussia for tax revenue and assistance with the military campaigns in the late 1700’s. Many of our Mennonite ancestors settled and lived in West Prussia prior to 1790.
Before 1772 Prussia consisted of a region later known as East Prussia (Ostpreussen) with its capital in Koenigsberg. Koenigsberg had been a duchy since 1525 and a kingdom of the Hohenzollern dynasty since 1701. The other region, later known as West Prussia (Westpreussen) included the Hanseatic League cities of Danzig, Elbing, Thorn, and Culm, referred to as Polish Prussia before 1772.
East Prussia was decimated in the early 1700's by the plague. As a result Frederick I invited the Mennonites, along with other groups, to settle in and repopulate that region. In 1713 Mennonites from the West Prussia region accepted and moved into the Memel region near Tilsit. In 1724 they were forced to accept military service or leave. They chose to leave. In 1740 the conscription order was revoked and they returned to eventually establish thriving agricultural activities in the Memel region.
In 1772 King Friedrich II of Prussia annexed Polish Prussia (without the Danzig Territory) calling it West Prussia (Westpreussen) and united it with East Prussia. It was common knowledge in political circles that Prussia had its intentions for the northern portion of Poland. For this reason the Prussians did everything possible to isolate and crush the economic and political strength of Danzig and its surrounding territories. Russia was reluctant to intervene in the 1790's when the Mennonites ran into difficulties emigrating from Prussia. For Moscow it was more important that they keep the peace with Prussia since Prussia was a much needed ally on the Eastern front with the Turks.
In 1793 King Friedrich Wilhelm II also annexed the Danzig and Thorn regions. Between the years 1793 and 1795 large areas of Poland which were called South Prussia (Suedpreussen) were added to his territory and later New East Prussia (Neu-Ostpreussen) was added as well. Koenigsberg was capital and coronation city of the Prussian kings. (For clarity see list of Prussian Kings)
After Napoleon's final defeat in 1815 the Kingdom of Prussia became known as "Die Vereinigten Preussischen Staaten" (United Prussian States) which now also included provinces like Schlesien/Silesia, Brandenburg, Pommern/Pomerania, and areas as far west as the Rhine province. The capital of Prussia was eventually moved to Berlin.
In this climate of political instability the Mennonite community developed and grew in numbers in the western region of Prussia. The inhabitants of the Prussia Kingdom spoke several different languages, perhaps the principle language being High German. The Mennonites living in the Vistula Delta spoke as many as three different languages: Dutch, High German, and Low German (Plattdeutsch).
Plattdeutsch Adopted
The Low German spoken by many Mennonites has its linguistic roots in the 5th century when "Old Saxon" was spoken in Europe (450-800 AD). Subsequently a large contingent of these people left the continent and settled on the island of Britain. Their language evolved into what is now known as Old English. The remainder stayed on the continent and their speech evolved into Old Low German (800-1200 AD). This Low German developed into two branches with one of them being called Low Saxon or known as Nether Saxon in Holland today.
This Lower Saxon or Plattdeutsch is spoken today in northern Germany among the common people as well as the northern provinces of the Netherlands (referred to as Nedersaksisch today). The term Plattdeutsch is derived from the word "platt" meaning clear, popular, understandable and "deutsch" for German. In other words, it was the vernacular of the German-speaking areas (Epp). So why is High German the dominant language today?
Hanseatic League and Politics
To understand the transition in languages in northern Europe we need to take a step back to the 1200's. In the mid-13th century the Hanseatic League was formed by three prosperous cities of northern Europe for commercial and trade purposes. This commercial alliance, which eventually grew to include some 70 cities of northern Europe, the Scandinavian countries, and Britain, used Low German as its official language for all trade, commerce, and legal affairs (1250-1540 AD).
With the advent of a new alliance of traders in the mid 1500's this balance of power shifted. The political coalition of the Hanseatic League, which spoke Low German, lost its power and influence. In just two decades almost 90% of all trade shifted to the Dutch and German economic coalition that spoke High German (Epp 19-23).