21st Century FEMA Study Course: Livestock in Disasters (IS-111) - For Farmers, Extension Agents - Cattle, Pigs, Poultry, Floods, Storms
U.S. Government, Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA)
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Copyright 2011 Progressive Management
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FEMA IS-111
Livestock in Disasters
Unit 1 - Overview - Preface
In recent years the United States has experienced an increasing number of disasters which have affected agriculture. The media is filled with stories about droughts, floods, high winds, and hail storms and their impact on farms and communities.
Examples of large-scale disasters include:
• Hundreds of thousands of pigs were evacuated from farms along the Mississippi River during the floods of 1993.
• Several million poultry died in the Delaware-Maryland-Virginia (Delmarva) region heat waves of 1995.
• More than 90,000 cattle froze or drowned due to blizzards and snow melt along the Red River in North Central Midwestern states in 1997.
• Hurricane Floyd in North Carolina caused the death of thousands of pigs and poultry in 1999. Floods caused manure lagoon spills and contamination of the environment.
While large-scale disasters often receive more media attention, more animals and farms suffer from small-scale, localized disasters. Examples of common local disasters include transportation accidents, adverse weather, fires, hazardous materials spills, and disease outbreaks.
The cumulative cost of small-scale disasters to the U.S. usually exceeds the cost of large-scale disasters. That is why disaster preparedness is most effective at the local level, where it is initiated by the people most likely to be affected by the disaster.
During large- and small-scale disasters, farmers and producers can suffer considerable economic losses, the safety and supply of food can be threatened, and animals may be injured or killed. In some instances, people have put themselves and others at risk attempting to rescue livestock, while others have refused to evacuate or go to shelters because of concerns about their animals.
Purpose of the Course
History and research indicate that individuals offer the best protection against losses in disasters. Some of the best information on how to mitigate and respond to disasters comes from the field of emergency management.
By analogy, livestock farmers and producers know how to mitigate the impact of disasters on their farms, because they are experts in livestock agriculture. Emergency managers can help them optimize those efforts, because they are the professionals in a community responsible for preparing the community for disasters and coordinating the response to disasters.
This is an introductory course designed to increase your awareness of what livestock producers, emergency managers, veterinarians, extension agents, and others can do to prevent and reduce the consequences of disasters.
This course is intended to synthesize the knowledge of livestock farmers and emergency managers and develop a unified approach that will mitigate the impact of disasters on livestock agriculture. Therefore, this independent study course is for both livestock farmers and emergency managers.
The course aims to provide livestock farmers with an overview of common causes and typical consequences of disasters. The course then applies knowledge and techniques from emergency management to illustrate how to identify livestock farmers’ vulnerability to disasters and what specific actions farmers can take to mitigate disasters.
For emergency managers, the course gives examples of typical problems that can arise with livestock in disasters. Based on these examples, emergency managers will be able to communicate effectively with farmers about causes, impacts, and consequences of disasters affecting livestock in their communities and how to mitigate the effects.
Upon successful completion of the course, you will have a better understanding of issues that arise when disasters affect livestock. You will also be able to rank your susceptibility to hazards, as well as your vulnerabilities to the consequences of disasters. Based on these assessments, you will generate a list of actions you can take to reduce costs as well as human and animal suffering in disasters. Throughout the course, you will learn why self-reliance is essential to effective disaster mitigation.
Structure of the Course
The course also provides an introduction to emergency planning, which is the basis upon which farmers, emergency managers, veterinarians, extension agents, and others will learn to work together at the level of the farm, local community, and state. Some readers have found it helpful to use this Independent Study course as the basis for small-group emergency planning meetings within their community.
The goal of the course is to provide a comprehensive level of awareness of important issues that arise with livestock in disasters. Some units, such as those on carcass disposal, manure lagoon management, and animal welfare, could each be expanded to entire courses. However, providing in-depth technical information is not the purpose of this course. We hope that the material provided is sufficient to motivate you to address these and other issues as you develop disaster preparedness plans for your farm and your community.
Many disasters, such as hurricanes, earthquakes, and blizzards, cannot be prevented. Also, many disasters have similar consequences, such as animal escapes, need for carcass disposal, and negative environmental impact.
Mitigation involves measures that prevent or reduce the causes, impacts, and consequences of disasters. Because most disasters have similar consequences, an “all-hazards” approach to mitigation is taken throughout the course. By taking an “all hazards” approach, we place the greatest emphasis on consequence management, i.e., on mitigating consequences common to many disasters.
Each unit in this course will describe a common cause of disaster (hazard) and a common consequence of that disaster. To remind you that the vulnerability to a particular consequence can arise from many disasters, not just the hazard in a particular unit, each unit also includes a table listing how the same hazard could result in consequences discussed in other units of the course.
Course Overview
During the design of the course, we gave considerable thought to how to address the many types of livestock and farms. Because it was not possible to have separate courses for each species or type of farm, we consolidated common features of the livestock industry. As you read the course, remember that the hazards and the consequences described for one type of farm or species also apply to many others.
For this course, we have defined livestock as cattle, swine, horses, sheep, and poultry. However, we have also included examples involving emus, circus animals, and feed mills.
The course consists of this overview, sixteen units of instruction, a tool to rank your vulnerability to hazards and consequences of disasters, and a final exam.
Units 2 through 4: Introduction and background. These units describe the importance of livestock agriculture to the U.S., the vulnerability of U.S. livestock agriculture to disasters, and the impact of disasters on livestock producers, rural communities, and markets. Also, these units describe important definitions used by emergency managers.
Units 5 through 15: Common hazards and typical consequences of disasters. Each unit discusses a common hazard that can lead to disaster; typical consequences of the disaster and information on how to mitigate, prepare, and respond to the hazards and consequences. At the end of each unit, you will conduct a vulnerability assessment for the hazard and consequence described, which will assist you in creating an action list for future activities.
Units 16 and 17: Disaster response. These units contain information on local, state, and federal roles in responding to a disaster. They also provide an overview of the principles of planning and responsibilities for developing a local disaster plan. In Unit 16, farm owners will rank their vulnerabilities to hazards and consequences of disasters, which will allow them to prioritize their approaches to mitigation.
Assessing Your Risks
The following are some questions to get you thinking about how much you know about disaster preparedness before you take this course. When you have completed this course, you should review these questions to reflect on how much you have learned.
• How many of your animals, production, or sales could you afford to lose to a disaster and remain viable as a business?
• If a large-scale disaster occurred in your community, how would that affect your county’s revenue?
• If you are a livestock producer or farmer, have you ever met with your local emergency manager to discuss the types of resources available to you in disasters?
• If you are an emergency manager, have you ever met with members of the local livestock industry, including livestock producers, veterinarians, and extension agents to discuss likely problems that would arise in common disasters in your community?
Unit 2
Importance of Livestock Agriculture to the U.S.
Overview
This unit examines the importance of livestock agriculture to the United States. It describes the contribution that agriculture makes to U.S. society and examines how recent trends in agriculture have increased the vulnerability of livestock agriculture to disasters.
Objectives
Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to:
• List several reasons why agriculture is important to the U.S. food supply.
• List several reasons why agriculture is important to the U.S. economy.
• Describe trends and factors that have increased the vulnerability of livestock agriculture to disasters.
Livestock Agriculture
In the U.S., agriculture plays a huge role in our lives. Agriculture is the principal source of food for Americans. Agriculture is also important to us economically and socially.
The U.S. is the largest food-producing nation in the world. This huge industry allows us to enjoy one of the most abundant food production systems and the safest supply of food in the world.
Agriculture generates approximately $190 billion in cash receipts a year, of which just over 50 percent are generated from livestock agriculture. Cash receipts from agriculture exports are approximately $49.1 billion, of which approximately 20 percent are from export of animals and animal products. These exports make the U.S. one of the largest suppliers of food for humanitarian programs in developing countries.
USDA Census
Protecting U.S. livestock agriculture is one of the principal justifications for this course. Emergency managers should know the livestock producers in their jurisdictions, understand their problems, and work with them to plan for mitigating against, responding to, and recovering from disasters. In this unit, you will learn how important livestock agriculture is and what is at stake when it is struck by disasters.
We know so much about U.S. agriculture because the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has compiled statistics for more than 100 years. Every 5 years, the USDA conducts a national census of agriculture. The data generated from the census allow us to estimate the magnitude of production and to detect and monitor trends in agriculture.
The USDA defines a farm as “any place from which $1,000 or more of agricultural products were produced, sold, or normally would have been sold” during the year the census was conducted. Properties that meet this definition are statistically sampled as part of the USDA national census every 5 years. The last census was conducted in 1997; the next will be in 2002.
In 1997, there were almost 2 million farms in the U.S. The figure below illustrates the distribution of farms across the country.
Food Consumption in the U.S.
Animal source foods are an integral part of most Americans’ diets. The average American consumes more than 3,800 calories a day. The average American diet contains lots of meat and dairy products. Red meat, poultry, and fish consumption is at a record high. Americans eat over 3.5 times as much cheese today as they did in the 1950s.
The table below lists the average per capita consumption of some major foods.
U.S. Per Capita Consumption of Major Food Commodities
Food / Pounds Consumed in a Year
Dairy products (milk-equivalent, milk fat basis) total: 597.9
Beverage milks: 203.8
Cheese (excluding cottage cheese): 29.8
Ice cream: 16.8
Flour and cereal products: 201.9
Caloric sweeteners (e.g., sugar and high fructose corn syrup): 158.4
Beef: 65.8
Chicken: 54.2
Pork: 50.5
Fish and shellfish: 15.2
Turkey: 14.1
Lamb and mutton: 0.9
Veal: 0.6
Eggs (approx. number): 32.8 (240)
Source: (Agriculture Outlook 2001)
Part of the reason the consumption of dairy products is so high in American diets is because dairy products are present in approximately 80 percent of all processed food products.
On the whole and in moderation, food of animal origin is healthy. On average, foods of animal origin provide Americans with 99.4 percent of their daily Vitamin B-12, 76.8 percent of calcium, 61.5 percent of protein, 59.5 percent of phosphorus, and up to 50 percent of fat. Animal source foods provide significant amounts of many other macro and micro minerals and vitamins.
Economic Value of Agriculture
Economic value of livestock
Agriculture is the largest economic sector in the U.S.
The net value added to the U.S. economy from food and fiber in 2001 was $965.7 billion. The farm sector contributed $73.1 billion, or approximately 15.6 percent, of the U.S. Gross Domestic Product (GDP).
In 1997, the value of livestock and poultry sold was approximately $99 billion. The distribution of the value of livestock and poultry sold was: cattle and calves 41%, poultry and poultry products 23%, dairy products 19%, hogs and pigs 14%, all other livestock 3%
Trends in agriculture
Livestock agriculture has undergone considerable changes since the end of World War II. These changes have occurred because of the use of new technologies, mechanization, increased chemical use, and government policies that favored maximizing production.
The increased use of machines and government price supports during the past century encouraged farm operators to increase the size of their farms and gain efficiencies.
As a result of these changes, food and fiber productivity in the U.S. has soared. However, because of greatly improved efficiency in production, fewer people work on farms now than 100 years ago. While almost 40 percent of the country’s population lived and worked on farms at the beginning of the 20th century, today only 1.8 percent live on farms.
Changes in Agriculture During the Last Century
Statistic / Beginning of the 20th Century (1900) / End of the 20th Century (1997)
Number of farms / 5,739,657 / 1,911,859
Average farm acreage / 147 acres / 487 acres
Percent Population living on farms / 39.2% / 1.8% (1990)
Percent Labor Force on Farms / 38.8% / 1.7% (1990)
Crops (% of farms growing)
Corn / 82% / 23%
Hay / 62% / 46%
Vegetables / 61% / 3%
Irish Potatoes / 49% / 1%
Orchards / 48% / 6%
Oats / 37% / 5%
Soybeans / 0% / 19%
Livestock
Cattle / 85% / 55%
Milk cows / 79% / 6%
Hogs and pigs / 76% / 6%
Chickens / 97% / 5%
Farm Mechanization
Wheel tractor / 4% / 89%
Horses / 79% / 20%
Mules / 26% / 2%
Source: (USDA’s National Agricultural Statistics Service)
Trends in U.S. livestock agriculture
Similar trends in intensification occurred in the livestock industry. Today, a great proportion of livestock is raised on fewer and larger farms than ever before. For example, currently, more than 50 percent of the hogs in the U.S. are raised on farms with more than 5,000 hogs.
The dairy industry has also intensified. This is reflected in the trend that fewer cows produce more milk than ever before. Between 1991 and 2000, the number of milk cows decreased, on average, 6 percent per year; milk production increased, on average, 14 percent per year.
While intensification has increased productivity, it has also increased the vulnerability of livestock farms to disasters. This vulnerability is a result of having more animals in a smaller space. Under these conditions, even localized disasters can have very large impacts on livestock agriculture.
The increased vulnerability that arises from intensification became evident during Hurricane Floyd that swept across part of North Carolina in 1999. As a result of floods approximately 28,000 hogs, 2.1 million chickens, and 800,000 turkeys drowned.
The allied industries
Many people think of agriculture as the farmers and producers who produce the crops or raise livestock. However, there are many more persons involved in agriculture than farmers. These groups make up the allied industries. On average, for every dollar we spend on food in the U.S., only $0.20 pays the farmer; the remaining $0.80 pays for value-added processes such as labor, packaging, transportation, and advertising.
Who bears the cost in disasters affecting agriculture?
It should not be surprising that when a farm is struck by disaster, the impact is much greater than the losses to farmers and producers alone. Based on the distribution of the expenditure on food, it is estimated that for every dollar lost in disasters by a farmer, the allied industries lose an additional four dollars, on average.
Therefore, when disaster strikes agriculture, we all bear the cost. We pay these higher costs through payments to farmers for losses suffered in disasters as well as through increased costs of food. Throughout this course, you will learn how farmers can act to minimize these costs.
Learning Check (True or False)
1. The U.S. enjoys one of the safest food supplies in the world.
2. U.S. agriculture generates over $190 billion in cash receipts a year.
3. In the 1990s, Americans ate 3.5 times less cheese than they did in the 1950s.
4. Approximately 80 percent of processed foods contain dairy products.
5. Foods of animal origin are the least common source of Vitamin B-12 in the average American diet.
6. A farm generates less than $1,000.00 a year in revenues.
7. There are approximately 4 million farms in the U.S.
8. The farm sector contributes approximately 15 percent of the Gross Domestic Product to the U.S.
9. The value of livestock and livestock products sold in the U.S. each year is approximately $99 billion.
10. U.S. agricultural productivity has decreased in the last century.
11. Today less than 2 percent of U.S. families live on farms.
12. Intensification means that the U.S. has fewer but larger farms than in years past.
13. Intensification of U.S. pork production has manifested itself as fewer, larger units.
14. Intensification of U.S. dairy production has manifested itself as greater productivity of individual cows.
15. For every dollar Americans pay for their food, on average, approximately $0.80 is paid to farmers.
Answer Key
1 True
2 True
3 False
4 True
5 False
6 False
7 False
8 True
9 True
10 False
11 True
12 True
13 True
14 True
15 False
Summary
In this unit, you learned about the contribution that agriculture makes to U.S. society, and how recent trends in agriculture have increased the vulnerability of livestock agriculture to disasters.
In the next unit, we will examine in more detail how disasters affect livestock agriculture.
Unit 3
The Impact of Disasters on the Livestock Industry
Overview
This unit discusses the impact of disasters on livestock producers, rural communities, agricultural markets, and animals. You will learn how disasters affect producers, a community’s tax base, agricultural markets, and the well-being of animals.
Objectives
Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to:
• Give examples of how disasters affect livestock producers
• Describe the impact of disasters affecting livestock on rural communities
• Describe the impact of disasters affecting livestock on state agriculture markets
• Describe how disasters can cause severe business disruption.
• Describe how disasters adversely affect the well-being of animals.
Impact of Disasters
The livestock industry is large and encompasses production, selling feed, marketing, supplying accessories, and providing health services to animals. As we have seen in the previous unit, disasters affecting farms often have cascading effects on the allied industries.
Typical losses
We will look at the 1998 ice storms that affected the northeastern United States as an example of the multiple levels of impacts of disasters. These levels are local producers (farms), rural communities (counties), and states.
New York ice storm of January 1998
An example of how large-scale disasters affect all levels, from local to state, was the 1998 ice storms that affected the northeastern U.S. and southeastern Canada.
In January 1998, the northeastern U.S. and southeastern Canada were severely affected by an unusually large amount of freezing rain. From January 5–10, the total water equivalent of precipitation—mostly freezing rain and ice pellets—was more than 85 mm. Previous major ice storms in the region deposited 30–40 mm of ice. The heavy precipitation resulted in extensive damage in New York, Maine, New Hampshire, Ontario, and Quebec, resulting in downed power lines and impassable roads.
Effects on producers
Some producers projected a long-term drop in production of 30 percent or more.
The average costs per affected farmer in Clinton County were estimated to be:
Dead / sick cows $11,000
Dumped milk due to lack of refrigeration $ 4,725
Unusable milk “in” cows $ 4,000
General repairs to generator motors, etc. $ 1,000
Treatment of sick cows (per cow) $ 750
Fuel to keep generators running $ 600
Total Cost Per Farm (Clinton County) $20,000 to $30,000
Before the storm, many New York dairy farmers were already struggling and on the edge of economic disaster due to low milk prices. Many farmers were unable to afford loans and requested grant assistance to survive.
Impact on rural communities
The economic impact on communities is exemplified by reports from two New York counties. In Clinton County, 181 farms were affected. In neighboring Franklin County, 240 farms were affected. Losses in the two counties were estimated at $10 million, including the losses from discarded milk, animal illness and deaths, damage to property, and loss of business among allied industries. These losses represented considerable reduction in these counties’ tax revenues.
The impact of the ice storm on New York state
FEMA reported that approximately 1,400 of 1,800 dairy farms in the region affected in New York state were damaged by power outages and downed trees. The farms then faced a year of low milk production with sick or dying cows.
The New York Department of Agriculture & Markets estimated that 7 million pounds of milk were dumped in the area. The losses were estimated at $1 million.
New York agriculture officials noted that overall milk production in a six-county area was estimated to have dropped by 50 percent (from 6 million to 3 million pounds per day). The overall milk production for New York state as a whole for January 1998 was down by 3 percent.
In Maine, nearly one-third of the state's 525 dairy farms suffered storm damage.
Animal well-being
The USDA Farm Services Agency estimated that over 1,200 of the 20,500 cows in the affected counties died. Of the remaining animals, more than 6,000 suffered from mastitis and required veterinary care.
Other reports of the consequences of the ice storm
The Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Rural Affairs provided several reports on the impact of the ice storms in Canada.
In 1996 there were 11,409 dairy farms in Quebec (46 percent of the total in Canada) and 8,195 in Ontario (33.3 percent of the total in Canada). Within the affected region, there were approximately 274,000 cows, which produced over 25 percent of Canada's domestic supply of milk. Also, nearly 20 percent of Canada’s hogs were raised in the affected region, as were over 40,000 sheep (including lambs).
The loss of power resulted in an inability to chill and store the milk, and ice on the roads and obstructions prevented milk trucks from collecting milk. As a result, over 3 million gallons of milk had to be dumped during the storm and its cleanup.
Many of the cows could not be milked because modern dairy producers depend on mechanized milking. Many of the dairy cows that survived the power outages developed mastitis and never regained their pre-storm productivity.
On poultry farms, birds died or stopped growing. Egg production was also reduced and some birds went into molt.
Other examples of the impact of disasters on the livestock industry
Texas heat wave and drought (1998)
Because of a lack of feed, the drought forced many cattle farmers to sell off much of their herds. Ranchers sold 30 percent more cattle than in previous years. Texas State Agriculture Commission officials said some auction houses sold cattle at 10 times the previous year’s rate.
According to the Commerce Department, farm income for the first 3 months of the year was less than 30 percent of the $27.2 billion farmers earned in the first quarters of both 1996 and 1997.
Florida wildfires (1998 and 1999)
The Florida State Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services reported that fires burned more than 496,000 acres and caused an estimated $626.5 million in damages to Florida’s crops, livestock, and forests. This figure includes losses of $140 million to crops and pastureland and $43.5 million to livestock.
Hurricane Floyd (1999)
Damages from Hurricane Floyd for crop and livestock losses were estimated at $64 million throughout North Carolina. Of these costs, $7.1 million was for damage to farm structures and equipment in the region affected by the hurricane. An estimated 28,000 hogs and 2.1 million chickens and turkeys drowned in the floodwaters.
Business Disruption
Disasters are always costly. Frequently, people think of highly popularized large-scale disasters seen on television as the costliest disasters. However, the costs associated with “everyday” disasters are by far the greatest disaster-related costs every year in the U.S.
When disasters strike agricultural communities, we should remember that not only are farms affected, but also small businesses, such as feed and accessory suppliers, and veterinary practices. These small, local businesses are particularly vulnerable to disasters, because the cost of disaster mitigation, insurance, and recovery is relatively higher than for large national chains. Small businesses have, on average, fewer resources to pay for recovery from disasters.
The impact of disasters on small businesses can be very damaging and occur relatively commonly. For example, every day in the U.S. over 200 fires destroy businesses, including agricultural businesses.
Several studies have addressed the effects of large-scale disasters on small businesses. Catastrophic disasters often have the worst impact on unprepared businesses. This compares with Small Business Administration (SBA) studies indicating that only 9.7 percent of small businesses close every year. Businesses affected by a disaster should check to see if they are eligible for SBA’s Economic Injury Disaster Loan Program (http://www.sba.gov). Businesses with resumption plans are usually operational sooner than businesses without plans.
Of all businesses that survive for 1 year after a disaster, the small businesses are in the worst economic shape. Almost half (40 percent) of businesses affected by a disaster are out of business within a year of the disaster, and an additional 29 percent go out of business within 2 years of the disaster.
Learning Check (True or False)
1. The livestock industry includes farmers, producers, and the allied industries, such as feed mills, service and supply vendors, and veterinary practices.
2. Disasters that strike farms also affect small businesses.
3. Business resumption plans do not make a difference in how quickly a farm returns to operation.
4. Examples of the cost of disasters affecting farmers include animal deaths and lost production.
5. Although farmers are affected by disasters, there usually are no cascading effects on others.
6. When disasters affect many farms in a county, there may be a significant loss to the county’s tax base.
7. Large-scale disasters have no serious implications for state revenues.
8. Most popularized disasters are large-scale; however, the greatest cumulative losses from disasters in the U.S. are local and do not receive much media attention.
9. Pre-existing economic difficulties can exacerbate the impact of disasters.
10. Disasters are a threat to animal well-being.
Answer Key
1 True
2 True
3 False
4 True
5 False
6 True
7 False
8 True
9 True
10 True
Summary
The impact of disasters on the livestock industry can be devastating at many levels, ranging from the farm to the county and state. Animal well-being is also threatened in disasters. Many causes of disasters cannot be prevented; however, it is possible to mitigate the consequences of most disasters. Individuals, industry, and public officials all have a role to play in developing disaster preparedness plans.
Unit 4
Emergency Management in the United States
Overview
This unit describes emergency management in the United States. It defines the four phases of emergency management, as well as other important terms used by emergency managers. In addition, it describes the contributions of individuals and community, state, and federal agencies in making emergency management successful.
Objectives
Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to:
• Define the four phases of emergency management and describe activities associated with each phase
• Define basic emergency management terminology
• Describe the responsibilities of individuals and agencies at the community, state, and federal levels
What Are Disasters?
The most common disasters result from meteorological (weather-related) and geological events and can affect any area of the U.S. Their impact can be localized or widespread, predictable or unpredictable. Damage can range from minimal to major. Depending on the severity of the incident, they can have a long-term impact on the infrastructure (roads, bridges, and utilities) of any location.
Threats involving natural forces include thunderstorm, flood, tornado, hurricane, winter storm, drought, wildfire, landslide, earthquake, tsunami (tidal wave), volcano, and dam failure. Technological (man-made) hazards include hazardous material releases and spills, acts of terrorism, and nuclear accidents. Natural hazards are usually, but not always, more predictable than any other type of hazard. Other threats include animal health emergencies, such as outbreaks of a Foreign Animal Disease.
Although we cannot know exactly when or where disasters will strike, or how severe they will be, we recognize from past experience which geographical areas are most vulnerable to certain types of natural hazards. This knowledge helps us better prepare for and respond to natural hazards. When you read through Units 5 – 15 on natural hazards, remember that each type of hazard has unique characteristics, yet common elements. These common elements allow you to prepare for and protect yourself and your animals from disaster.
Four Phases of Emergency Management
Emergency managers think of disasters as recurring events with four phases: Mitigation, Preparedness, Response, and Recovery.
The significance of the emergency management cycle is that all communities are in at least one phase of emergency management at any time.
Mitigation
This phase includes actions taken to prevent or reduce the cause, impact, and consequences of disasters. Examples of hazard mitigation include:
• Tying down homes or barns with ground anchors to withstand wind damage
• Digging water channels to redirect water and planting vegetation to absorb water
• Constructing levees or permanent barriers to control flooding
• Reinforcing fencing to prevent animal escapes
• Buying insurance policies
Preparedness
This phase includes planning, training, and educational activities for events that cannot be mitigated. Examples include:
• Developing disaster preparedness plans for what to do, where to go, or who to call for help in a disaster
• Exercising plans through drills, tabletop exercises, and full-scale exercises
• Creating a supply list of items that are useful in a disaster
• Walking around a farm and identifying possible vulnerabilities to high winds
Response
The response phase occurs in the immediate aftermath of a disaster. During the response phase, business and other operations do not function normally. Personal safety and wellbeing in an emergency and the duration of the response phase depend on the level of preparedness.
Examples of response activities include:
• Implementing disaster response plans
• Conducting search and rescue missions
• Taking actions to protect yourself, your family, your animals, and others
• Addressing public perceptions about food safety
Recovery
During the recovery period, restoration efforts occur concurrently with regular operations and activities. The recovery period from a disaster can be prolonged. Examples of recovery activities include:
• Preventing or reducing stress-related illnesses and excessive financial burdens
• Rebuilding damaged structures based on advanced knowledge obtained from the preceding disaster
• Reducing vulnerability to future disasters
Definitions of Emergency and Disaster
The terms emergency and disaster often are used interchangeably. This common use of terms can be confusing.
It is easiest to understand the terms emergency and disaster as being at two ends of a scale, in which the size of an incident and the resources to deal with the incident are matched to varying degrees.
Emergency
At one end of the spectrum, emergencies are usually small-scale, localized incidents which are resolved quickly using local resources. However, small-scale emergencies can escalate into disasters when there has been inadequate planning and wasteful use of resources.
Disaster
At the other end of the spectrum, disasters are typically large-scale and cross geographic, political, and academic boundaries. Disasters require a level of response and recovery greater than local communities can provide.
Emergencies and disasters and the livestock industry
Emergencies and disasters involving livestock also vary in degree, depending on the amount and availability of needed resources. The degree to which an incident results in a disaster depends on the size of the event and local response and recovery capabilities. In many cases, levels of preparedness, response, and recovery capabilities go hand-in-hand.
For example, in the 1998 ice storm in the northeastern U.S., the most critical agricultural need was for electrical generators. Dairy farms suffering power outages depended on electricity to milk their cows.
Farmers who had adequate-sized generators and who knew how to operate them faced an emergency because they were only temporarily prevented from milking their cows.
In contrast, farmers without generators, or with generators that failed due to lack of adequate maintenance or fuel, were faced with disastrous consequences. They could not milk their cows and suffered great production losses. Their cows became ill and, in some cases, died.
Foreign animal disease
Foreign Animal Disease outbreaks, such as Foot and Mouth Disease or Classical Swine Fever (Hog Cholera), could have a negative impact on the national food supply and pose a major threat to production and international trade. Coordination among local, state, and federal agencies is key to minimizing the impact of such diseases.
Definitions Used by Emergency Managers
The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is the agency that promotes disaster mitigation and readiness and coordinates response and recovery following the declaration of a major disaster. FEMA defines a disaster as:
“an event that results in large numbers of deaths and injuries; causes extensive damage or destruction of facilities that provide and sustain human needs; produces an overwhelming demand on state and local response resources and mechanisms; causes a severe long-term effect on general economic activity; and severely affects state, local, and private sector capabilities to begin and sustain response activities.”
Levels of disasters
Emergency managers further classify emergencies and disasters by size and the type and number of issues that need to be addressed. This classification involves minor emergencies, limited and potential emergencies, and major disasters.
Minor emergencies
• Examples:
• Residential fires
• Livestock barn fires
• Localized chemical spills
• Livestock trailer wrecks
• Power outages to animal-related businesses (farms, veterinary practices)
• Storm damage (wind, hail, ice)
• Issues:
• Temporary accommodation for people and animals
• Testing, transport, and certification of animals for slaughter
Limited and potential emergencies
Examples:
Localized flooding
Hurricane warning
Droughts
Presumptive diagnosis of foreign animal disease
Nuclear reactor failure
Tsunami warning
Issues – same as for minor emergencies, plus:
Notice of evacuation of animal owners and animals
Isolation of area
Disaster intelligence (e.g., mapping of a plume zone)
Major disasters
Examples:
Large-scale flooding
Hurricane
Earthquake
Foreign animal disease outbreak
Issues – same as for limited and potential emergencies, plus:
Disease control interventions
Evacuation failures of animal owners
Animal rescue attempts
Carcass disposal
Temporary accommodation for owners of animals
Disaster declarations
Disasters are declared using established guidelines and procedures. Because all disasters are local, they are initially declared at the local level. This declaration is made by the local Chief Elected Official (CEO) (mayor, city manager, commissioner). Only when the CEO determines that local resources capabilities have been or are expected to be exceeded will the CEO of a community request state assistance. If the state chooses to respond to a disaster, the Governor of the state will direct implementation of the state’s emergency plan. Again, if the Governor determines that the resource capabilities of the state are exceeded, the Governor can request that the President declare a major disaster in order to make federal resources and assistance available to qualified state and local governments. This ordered sequence is important to ensure appropriate financial assistance.
Financial Assistance in Disasters
Financial assistance is available on a supplemental basis through an application process. The Governor reviews the local government’s application, studies the damage estimates and, if appropriate, declares the area a state disaster. This official declaration makes state resources available. However, if damages are so extensive that the combined local and state resources are not sufficient, the Governor applies to the President for federal disaster assistance.
If the need for federal assistance funds is justified, the President issues a major disaster declaration and federal resources become available. This system ensures that state and federal limited resources are used wisely and fairly, and the needs of disaster victims are met.
To see an updated map illustrating the most recent presidential disaster declarations, as well as useful information about the types of disasters that result in declarations, go to http://www.bakerprojects.com/fema/mapmain.
State of Emergency
Disaster declarations are different than states of emergency. A state of emergency is declared when public health or the economic stability of a community is threatened and extraordinary measures of control may be needed. Examples include a disease outbreak in people (public health) or animals (economic stability, food security).
Livestock in Disasters / Unit 4
Making Emergency Management Work
Emergency management works when individuals, the community, the state, and federal government agencies fulfill their emergency management responsibilities. Following is a discussion of each.
Individual roles
Animal owners, including livestock producers, are individually responsible for animals under their care. In disasters, livestock producers have three concerns: human safety, livestock safety, and protection of their property. To protect against threats, responsible livestock producers prepare themselves by constructing a safe environment and by acquiring adequate resources to ensure their safety. Personal preparedness includes having effective biosecurity measures and early reporting of suspect Foreign Animal diseases to officials.
The goal of local emergency management programs is for the public to be as prepared as possible. Prepared livestock producers need less outside help and can expect fewer losses. Personal preparedness is the most effective level of preparedness to minimize losses in disasters.
Throughout this course, you will learn how to develop your own emergency contingency plans.
Community agencies’ roles
Community (local) governments make plans and provide resources to protect their citizens from the hazards that threaten their communities. Mitigation activities, preparedness plans, responses to emergencies, and recovery operations are examples of this effort. Wherever you live within the U.S., a county or municipal agency is designated as your local emergency management agency.
The local government level is the most important at which to integrate emergency management plans because local governments serve as the link between you and the state and federal agencies in the emergency management network.
Local law specifies a chain of command in emergencies. It spells out who reports to whom. The chief executive officer or jurisdiction manager creates effective emergency services.
State agencies’ roles
The state emergency management office is responsible for protecting communities and citizens within the state. The state office carries out statewide emergency management activities, helps coordinate emergency management activities involving more than one community, or assists individual communities when they need help. If any community lacks the resources needed to protect itself or to recover from a disaster, the state may help with money, personnel, or other resources.
Federal agencies’ roles
FEMA
At the federal level of government, FEMA is involved in mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery activities.
FEMA also helps the states by providing the following programs:
• Training programs and research information on the latest mitigation measures
• Review and coordination of state emergency plans
• Financial assistance
• Flood insurance to individuals and businesses in communities that join the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP)
• Subsidies to state and local offices of emergency management for maintaining emergency management programs
• Guidance and coordination for plans to warn and protect the nation in national security emergencies
• Coordination of services for disaster response and recovery activities. In addition, FEMA may provide supplemental resources when communities and states do not have sufficient resources to protect or assist their citizens, restore essential services that can get the local economy going again, and meet the disaster-related needs of individuals.
FEMA is your principal source of federal assistance for education in disaster management. It provides a variety of training opportunities, including this course. Many of FEMA’s courses are taught through your state emergency management agency. FEMA also provides classroom instruction and operates the National Emergency Training Center, which offers higher-level courses in emergency management.
USDA
While FEMA coordinates assistance to businesses and individuals during disasters, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has various programs and authorities to provide assistance to livestock producers and farmers after a major disaster.
Other federal agencies involved in disasters include the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), and the Small Business Administration (SBA). Their roles are discussed in detail in Unit 17, in the Appendix for Unit 10, and throughout the course. In addition, the federal government supports the collection of information in databases such as the National Weather Service (www.nws.gov) and the United States Geological Survey (www.usgs.gov), which are important to disaster management.
Learning Check (True/False)
1. A farmer purchases a snowmobile to allow him to get water and feed to his cattle in case of a major winter storm. This is a preparedness activity.
2. A farmer builds a new horse barn with materials designed to withstand the effects of wind, flying debris, and pouring rains. This is a mitigation activity.
3. A group of farmers plan for a hurricane by dividing up responsibilities for communication, evacuation, and feed supplies among themselves. This is a preparedness activity.
4. A farmer invites a local fire inspector to his property to advise on fire safety and hazardous materials storage. This is a response activity.
5. After a severe summer storm, there is concern that the water tanks for horses have been contaminated. To prevent illness, the owners thoroughly clean the tanks before they let their horses drink from them. This is a mitigation activity.
6. After an avalanche, several horses and riders are missing. A search team is dispatched. This is a response activity.
7. Months after a flood, farmers begin creating lists of things they could do to lessen the impact of future disasters. This is a preparedness activity.
8. Several weeks after a flood, there is concern that a well supplying drinking water to beef cattle has become contaminated. To minimize the risk to the cows, the owner tests the water quality weekly for bacterial contamination. This is a recovery activity.
9. Emergencies that are large-scale can always be dealt with using existing resources.
10. Disasters are usually large-scale events in which there are inadequate resources to meet the needs of the affected community.
11. Personal preparedness is the most effective level at which the losses from disasters can be minimized.
12. Most natural disasters affect local communities first.
13. Disasters are declared starting at the federal, then state, then local level.
14. An important role of FEMA in disasters is coordination of preparedness and mitigation activities in declared major disasters.
15. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has various programs and authorities to provide assistance to livestock producers after a major disaster.
Answer Key
1 True
2 True
3 True
4 False
5 False
6 True
7 False
8 True
9 False
10 True
11 True
12 True
13 False
14 False
15 True
Summary
This unit defined the four phases of emergency management and described activities associated with each phase. It also distinguished between the terms emergency and disaster, explained how each one relates to livestock producers, and how preparedness can reduce losses in disasters. Finally, this unit described the roles of community, state, and federal agencies concerning emergency management.
Unit 5
Summer Storms / Communication Challenges
Overview
In this unit, you will learn about the consequences of summer storms and how you can protect your farm and livestock against them. You will also work through a case that exemplifies communication failure, and learn about what you can do to communicate effectively in a disaster.
Objectives
Upon completion of this unit, you should be able to:
• List important consequences of summer storms on farms
• Identify mitigation and preparedness measures for summer storms
• List and define three components of effective communication
• Determine your vulnerability to summer storms
• Determine your vulnerability to communication failure in disasters
Thunderstorms
Approximately 100,000 thunderstorms develop in the U.S. every year. Of these, about 10 percent are severe and 3 percent, or 3,000, produce tornadoes.
Severe thunderstorms are characterized by:
• Sustained winds over 58 mph, or
• Hail greater than or equal to ¾-inch in diameter, or
• Development of tornadoes
Thunderstorm damage
Although the effect of thunderstorms is usually localized, storms occur so frequently that the total number of human deaths, injuries, and damages exceed the sum of all other disasters together. Summer storms have many consequences. Most damage is the result of flooding, lightning, wind, hail, and tornadoes.
Thunderstorm watches and warnings
Depending on where you live, summer storms can occur as early as February to as late as November.
The National Severe Storms Forecast Center in Kansas City, Missouri, issues severe thunderstorm watches. Local offices of the National Weather Service issue warnings and statements about severe weather and storms at the local level. The terms used are:
• A severe thunderstorm watch means that conditions are right for a storm to develop. When a thunderstorm watch is issued, you should take action to protect yourself and your farm.
• A severe thunderstorm warning means that severe thunderstorms have been sighted in your area and that the potential for danger is immediate. You should be prepared to take cover immediately.
Hazards
Sustained winds
Straight line winds can reach speeds of more than 100 mph and may be accompanied by heavy rains. Dust storms are another form of dangerous wind.
Tornadoes
Every state has recorded tornadoes in every month of the year and at most times of day and night. In the southern U.S., tornadoes occur most commonly from March to May. The summer months create conditions for tornadoes to occur more frequently in the northern states.
The greatest damage, injuries, and death during tornadoes occur from flying debris. Direct wind damage is the second major cause of destruction. Tornadoes are invariably accompanied by heavy rain and often by hail.
The National Severe Storms Forecast Center in Kansas City, MO, issues tornado watches. Local offices of the National Weather Service issue tornado warnings. Local officials may sound sirens in a tornado warning.
• A tornado watch indicates that conditions are right for a tornado to develop. When a tornado watch is issued, you should prepare to take cover.
• A tornado warning indicates a tornado has been sighted or is spotted on radar. Listen for local weather forecasts so that you know if you will be affected. You should be prepared to take cover immediately.
Hail
Hail damages crops, buildings, and equipment. It can be extremely dangerous for people and animals. Hail falls most commonly in Colorado and southern Wyoming. However, it has been recorded in every state across the country.
An easy guideline on whether severe damage has occurred to buildings, equipment, and livestock is to see if trees and plants have sustained damages. If they have been damaged, chances are high that roofs and equipment also have been damaged. In that case, you will want to be cautious when entering barns or other buildings.
Lightning
Lightning is another characteristic of thunderstorms. Lightning can strike several miles from the center of a storm. Therefore, people and animals can be struck by lightning even when it is not raining.
As a general rule, if you can hear thunder, you are at risk of being struck by lightning.
Lightning commonly strikes freestanding trees. Therefore, humans and animals should avoid taking shelter under freestanding trees when there is a risk of lightning strike.
What Can You Do?
Mitigation of Thunderstorms
There are many things you can do to mitigate the consequences of thunderstorms. Here are some examples:
Insure crops against storm damage loss through the Federal Crop Insurance Corporation of the U.S. Department of Agriculture
Buy flood insurance through your local property insurance agent (thunderstorms often cause flooding)
Follow relevant building code practices such as wind-resistant design
Secure a source of electrical power, such as purchasing a generator
Build fences around single trees in pastures where livestock graze. The fences will prevent livestock from congregating under these trees in storms and reduce their risk of being struck by lightning.
Fit barn windows with material that will not shatter and cut animals or people when broken by wind or hail
Fix loose siding and roofing and secure rafters in roofs
Store or secure any loose equipment and materials, including strapping
Label hazardous material tanks such as heating, oil, or propane
Securely tie manufactured (mobile) homes to a solid foundation or anchors to keep the wind from shifting them or turning them over
Plan to find shelter under heavy furniture or mattresses near an inside wall of your house on the ground floor
Preparedness for thunderstorms
There are several steps that you can take to keep yourself, your farm, and your livestock safe during thunderstorms. The best preparedness is to develop a household and business plan and to practice this plan at least once a year. For example, conduct tornado drills with your family. Designate thunderstorm and tornado responsibilities among farm workers.
Regularly maintain generators and test your ability to operate your farm from electrical power supplies other than power grids.
When you observe signs of an impending storm, such as towering thunderhead clouds, darkening skies, lightning, and increasing winds, listen to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) weather forecast, or a local radio or television station for the latest information.
Designate a safe area in or near your home to shelter your family and small animals in a severe thunderstorm. Teach family members and farm workers what to do in a storm if they are at home, at work, outside, or in a car, including how to relocate animals to safe locations.
If there is a risk of building collapse during a thunderstorm, livestock should be turned out to an open pasture to avoid injuries. However, animals should not be turned out if the risk of injury from flying debris is greater than staying inside. The ideal turnout is a low-lying area where animals can find natural protection.
Each farm should have a weather alert radio set to receive specific information about weather in its location.
Impact & Consequences
Summer storms can have many impacts and consequences. The following table presents some commonly reported problems that arise in summer storms and the unit where you can learn more about the consequences.
Impact / Consequence / Refer to Unit #
Storms can separate people and damage phone lines / Communications are challenged / This unit
Storms can blow over trees and cause power failure / Infrastructure failure / 6
Lightning can start brush and structural fires / Threat to public and animal safety / 7
Heavy rainfall can cause flooding / Need to evacuate people and animals / 8
Heavy rainfall can cause mudslides / Displacement of animals / 9
High-speed winds can cause hazardous materials to spill / Threat to public and animal health / 10
Heavy rains can cause manure lagoons to overflow / Adverse effects on the natural environment and wildlife / 11
Flying debris in tornadoes can kill animals / Need for carcass disposal / 12
Animals can be injured from flying debris and electrocution / Need for euthanasia / 13
Animals may be apprehensive or injured / Threat to the well-being of animals / 14
Storms can distress farmers and their animals / Public concern / 15
Effective Communication
In this unit we will look at a case of poor communication that took place during a summer storm. Poor communication is a common cause of confusion in disasters.
Effective communication is important in everyday life, and is critical during a disaster. In disasters you may have to make an accurate report on a situation to another person who cannot see the area affected or problem you have. Clear, unambiguous messages are essential. The important components of effective communication are:
• Clarity of the message
• Confirmation that the message has been sent and received
• Authentication of the source of information
In large-scale disasters, another problem arises when communications capacity is overwhelmed. Communications capacity becomes overwhelmed when people try to use phone lines or cell phone connections that are unavailable. Under these conditions, communication can be severely stressed, and often fails altogether.
Case 1: The manager’s inquiry
Clarity of the message
It is summer in Wyoming. A crew of ranch workers saddle up their horses and go to repair fences. A storm develops in the afternoon. The ranch manager, who stayed at the ranch house, notices lightning in the direction where the fencing crew is working. The manager calls the workers on his cell phone and the following conversation takes place.
Manager: “I saw a storm coming your way and wanted to know if everything is all right.”
Workers: “Everything is as good as could be expected out here.”
At that point there is a loud clap of thunder and the communication is broken off.
Was the communication unambiguous?
The communication between the fencing crew and ranch manager was ambiguous. Let’s review why the message was not clearly conveyed.
The inquiry of the manager could have meant:
• How is the fencing work progressing?
• Are you safe?
• Is the storm affecting you?
• Do you need help?
Unfortunately, we cannot satisfactorily answer any of these questions because the communication was ambiguous.
Likewise, do we know what is meant by the response? Not exactly, because the reply could have meant one of the following:
• The fencing work is proceeding nicely.
• We have been struck by lightning, but nobody is injured.
• We need help, but assume that you have other things to be concerned about.
Admittedly, this conversation was cut short and may have been clearer if it had continued.
How good are your disaster communication skills?
Now, let’s think about how the communication could have been less ambiguous. Imagine yourself as the ranch manager. As you see the storm brewing, you are most concerned about the safety of your workers and would like to know if they or their horses need protection from the storm.
Compare the following two questions and determine which one is clear.
1 Do you need protection from the storm?
2 Do you need help?
The first sentence is clear; however, the second question is ambiguous because it could mean: do you need help because you are injured, because a horse has bolted, or with the fencing work?
Case 2: Power outage
Let’s continue our case. The storm continues to develop and passes over the ranch with straight line winds and hail, followed by heavy rain.
Once the storm has passed, the ranch manager checks on his family and horses. Having confirmed that all are safe, he now wants to know if the fencing crew is safe. He calls them again. Several attempts have the same result. The phone rings and someone picks up, but he cannot hear what the person is saying.
Sending, receiving, and acknowledging a message
What do you think is the problem? Could the message not have been sent and received, or is it being sent and received and the manager is simply not getting an acknowledgement?
What would you do in this situation? How could you confirm that your message has been sent, received, and acknowledged?
To determine if his phone is working, the rancher called his neighbor. There was no response to his first call, so he tried another neighbor. This neighbor was at home and responded, but told him that the power was out in some areas and he had heard a telecommunications tower had been struck by lightning.
Growing more anxious, the rancher drove to where he thought the fencing crew would have been working at the time of the storm. A large tree has fallen close to where his crew had been working.
Unsure of where the crew might be, the rancher blew the horn of his truck a few times and waited for about 30 minutes. As there was still no sign of the crew, he decided to return to the ranch.
How good are your disaster communication skills?
Imagine yourself in the circumstances of the fencing crew.
What could you have done better to acknowledge the rancher’s message?
For example, before leaving you could leave a conspicuous sign or message indicating that you were safe and where you had gone.
Message authentication
Upon returning to the ranch, the farm manager noticed a message on his telephone answering machine. Unfortunately, he could not recognize the voice because it cut off early, but he thought it was Jeff, one of the fencing crew. He thought the message said that Jeff was cold and in need of help.
To find out, he telephoned Jeff’s home. Jeff’s wife answered the phone. She had not seen or heard from Jeff since he left for work that morning. However, she had just returned home from work herself, i.e., she could not authenticate the message either. She became concerned about Jeff.
How good are your disaster communication skills?
How would you authenticate that this message was from Jeff and what the content of his message was? Here are some suggestions: